Examine the mansab and, jagir system by Akbar and its subsequent failure in the 18th century.

The Mansabdari System

The *Mansabdari* system, meaning ‘rank’ or ‘position’, was a hierarchical ranking system that determined the civil and military status of officials under the Mughal emperor. Introduced and refined by Akbar, it was based on the decimal system, with ranks ranging from 10 to 10,000 ( *Mansabs*). Each *Mansabdar* had a specific duty to provide a certain number of soldiers ( *sawar*), horses, and equipment to the imperial army.

• Dual Rank System: Each *Mansabdar* was assigned two ranks – *zat* (personal rank) and *sawar* (equestrian rank). *Zat* determined the official’s salary and status, while *sawar* indicated the number of cavalrymen he was required to maintain.
• Categories of Mansabdars: *Mansabdars* were categorized into three classes: those receiving their salaries in cash (*naqdbandi*), those receiving their salaries through land assignments (*jagirdari*), and those receiving a combination of both.
• Military and Administrative Functions: *Mansabdars* were not merely military commanders; they also performed administrative functions, such as revenue collection and maintaining law and order in their assigned territories.

The Jagirdari System

The *Jagirdari* system was intimately linked to the *Mansabdari* system. A *Jagir* was a land grant assigned to a *Mansabdar* in lieu of salary. The *Jagirdar* had the right to collect land revenue from the peasants in his *Jagir*, but he was accountable to the emperor for a fixed amount.

• Types of Jagirs: *Jagirs* were classified into various types, including *Khalisa* (land under direct imperial control), *Jagir* (assigned to *Mansabdars*), and *Inam* (granted for religious or charitable purposes).
• Transfer of Jagirs: *Jagirs* were not hereditary and were frequently transferred ( *pargana* transfers) to prevent *Mansabdars* from establishing local power bases and fostering independent kingdoms. This practice, however, became problematic later.
• Revenue Administration: The *Jagirdari* system relied on a complex revenue administration system, with officials like *Qanungos*, *Patwaris*, and *Muqaddams* responsible for land measurement, record-keeping, and revenue collection.

Akbar’s Implementation and Initial Success

Akbar meticulously implemented these systems, ensuring a balance between central control and local autonomy. He standardized procedures, established clear guidelines for revenue assessment, and introduced a system of checks and balances to prevent corruption and abuse of power. The systems initially proved highly successful, contributing to the empire’s military strength, economic prosperity, and administrative efficiency. The decimal organization of the army facilitated efficient mobilization, while the *Jagirdari* system provided a ready source of revenue for the state.

Decline in the 18th Century: Factors and Consequences

However, the 18th century witnessed a gradual but relentless decline of both the *Mansabdari* and *Jagirdari* systems, contributing significantly to the Mughal empire’s disintegration. Several factors were responsible for this decline:

• Weak Successors: The decline began with the weak successors of Aurangzeb, who lacked the vision and administrative skills of their predecessors.
• Increased Corruption: Corruption among *Mansabdars* and revenue officials became rampant, leading to the exploitation of peasants and a decline in revenue collection.
• Frequent Transfers of Jagirs: While intended to prevent the rise of powerful local lords, the frequent transfers of *Jagirs* became increasingly disruptive. *Jagirdars* focused on maximizing short-term gains rather than investing in land improvement, leading to agricultural decline.
• Rise of Regional Powers: The weakening of central authority allowed regional powers, such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, to assert their independence, challenging the Mughal empire’s control over land and revenue.
• Fiscal Crisis: Constant warfare and extravagant spending led to a fiscal crisis, making it difficult for the empire to maintain its army and administration. The number of *Mansabdars* increased dramatically without a corresponding increase in revenue, leading to a ‘crisis of Jagirs’ – a shortage of *Jagirs* to accommodate the growing number of claimants.
• Degradation of Military Efficiency: The quality of the Mughal army declined as *Mansabdars* prioritized personal enrichment over military preparedness. The cavalry, the backbone of the Mughal army, suffered from a shortage of horses and skilled riders.

The consequences of the decline were far-reaching. Agricultural production declined, leading to famines and peasant unrest. Revenue collection plummeted, weakening the empire’s financial base. The rise of regional powers further eroded the Mughal empire’s authority, ultimately leading to its fragmentation and eventual collapse.