Give social background to the rise of the Maratha movement during the seventeenth century.

The Socio-Economic Fabric of 17th Century Maharashtra

Maharashtra in the 17th century was characterized by a distinct socio-economic structure. The region was largely agrarian, with a complex land revenue system. The Deshmukhs and Deshpandes, hereditary revenue collectors, wielded considerable local power, often acting independently of central authority. This created a layer of powerful intermediaries who exploited the peasantry.

Caste Dynamics and Social Stratification

The Maratha community itself wasn’t a homogenous entity. It was divided into 96 kulis (clans), each with its own distinct identity and status. However, the dominant social hierarchy was based on the traditional four varnas, with Brahmins at the top, followed by Kshatriyas (to which the Marathas aspired), Vaishyas, and Shudras.

• Maratha-Kunbi Relationship: The relationship between the Marathas and the Kunbis (peasant cultivators) was crucial. Many Marathas were engaged in agriculture, and the Kunbis formed the backbone of the Maratha army. The economic hardship faced by the Kunbis due to heavy taxation and exploitation fueled their support for the Maratha movement.
• Caste Conflicts: There was significant tension between the Marathas and the dominant Brahmin class, who controlled religious and intellectual life. Shivaji’s coronation, though performed by a Brahmin priest, was a deliberate assertion of Maratha power and challenged the traditional social order.
• Lower Caste Participation: While the movement was largely led by Marathas, it also attracted support from lower castes like the Mahars and Chambhars, who saw an opportunity to improve their social and economic conditions.

Agrarian Grievances and Economic Exploitation

The agrarian system under the Adilshahi, Nizamshahi, and later the Mughals, was oppressive.

• Heavy Taxation: The peasantry was subjected to heavy land revenue demands, often exceeding 50% of their produce. This led to widespread indebtedness and land alienation.
• Deshmukhs and Deshpandes: The hereditary revenue collectors often abused their power, extracting exorbitant fees and exploiting the peasantry.
• Mughal Policies: Mughal policies, such as the imposition of chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (one-tenth of revenue), further burdened the peasantry and fueled resentment.

Religious and Cultural Influences

The 17th century witnessed a resurgence of Bhakti movements in Maharashtra, particularly the Varkari sect.

• Varkari Movement: The Varkari movement, with its emphasis on devotion and social equality, challenged the rigidities of the caste system and provided a platform for social reform. Saints like Tukaram and Ramdas Swami preached in the local language, making religious teachings accessible to the masses.
• Ramdas Swami’s Influence: Ramdas Swami, in particular, played a significant role in instilling a sense of religious and cultural identity among the Marathas and advocating for the establishment of a Hindu swarajya (self-rule).
• Local Deities: The worship of local deities like Bhavani and Khandoba fostered a sense of regional identity and provided a rallying point for the Marathas.

Decline of Existing Powers and Political Vacuum

The weakening of the Adilshahi and Nizamshahi sultanates created a political vacuum in the Deccan. The Mughals, while expanding their influence, were unable to establish effective control over the entire region. This provided an opportunity for ambitious leaders like Shivaji to assert their independence.

Power	Status in 17th Century	Impact on Maratha Rise
Adilshahi Sultanate	Declining, internal conflicts	Created a power vacuum; Marathas exploited weaknesses
Nizamshahi Sultanate	Weakened by Mughal pressure	Similar to Adilshahi, provided opportunities for Maratha expansion
Mughal Empire	Expanding, but overextended	Initial Mughal control was limited; resentment over taxation and administration