Model Answer
0 min readIntroduction
The 17th century in India witnessed a period of significant political and economic upheaval, culminating in a widespread agrarian crisis. While indigenous sources are limited in detailing the extent of this crisis, the accounts left by European travelers – merchants, missionaries, and officials of the East India Company – provide valuable, though often biased, insights. These accounts reveal a deteriorating agrarian landscape marked by peasant unrest, famines, and a decline in agricultural productivity, largely attributed to the policies of Mughal emperors, ecological factors, and the increasing commercialization of agriculture. This answer will analyze the nature of this crisis based on these European observations.
The Mughal Administrative System and its Impact
The Mughal administrative system, particularly under emperors like Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, played a crucial role in shaping the agrarian landscape. The mansabdari system, while initially efficient, became increasingly corrupt and exploitative. The demand for revenue, often exceeding the land’s capacity, led to widespread indebtedness among peasants. European accounts, like those of Tavernier, frequently mention the harshness of revenue collection and the oppression faced by cultivators.
European Accounts: Key Observations
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1630s-1660s)
Tavernier, a French gem merchant, extensively travelled through India. His observations highlight the oppressive taxation system, the exploitation by zamindars (landlords), and the frequent transfer of land grants, disrupting agricultural practices. He noted the decline in the quality of land due to over-cultivation and lack of investment. He also observed the increasing commercialization of agriculture, with peasants forced to grow cash crops for the market, neglecting food crops.
François Bernier (1656-1668)
Bernier, a physician in the Mughal court, provided a more critical assessment of the Mughal empire. He described the land tenure system as exploitative, with the state claiming a large share of the produce. He emphasized the lack of private property rights for peasants, making them vulnerable to eviction and exploitation. Bernier’s account, though often exaggerated, paints a picture of widespread poverty and agrarian distress. He also noted the impact of jagirdari system, where jagirdars (holders of land grants) frequently transferred their holdings, leading to instability and exploitation.
Edward Terry (1615-1619) & William Finch (1608-1611)
Early English travelers like Terry and Finch documented the flourishing agricultural practices during the early 17th century, but also hinted at the seeds of future problems. They observed the abundance of food grains and the relatively low prices. However, they also noted the increasing influence of merchants and the growing demand for cash crops, which began to divert resources from food production. They also described the elaborate irrigation systems, but also noted their neglect in certain areas.
Manifestations of the Agrarian Crisis
Peasant Revolts
The oppressive agrarian policies triggered numerous peasant revolts throughout the 17th century. The most prominent were the revolts in the Deccan region, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb. These revolts were often led by local chieftains and religious leaders, and were fueled by grievances related to high taxation, religious persecution, and the exploitation by zamindars. European accounts corroborate the widespread unrest and the brutal suppression of these revolts.
Famines
The 17th century witnessed a series of devastating famines across India. The famine of 1630-32, coinciding with Tavernier’s travels, was particularly severe, affecting Gujarat, Deccan, and parts of North India. European accounts describe the widespread starvation, disease, and death caused by these famines. The famines were often exacerbated by the Mughal government’s failure to provide adequate relief measures and its continued demand for revenue even during times of scarcity.
Decline in Agricultural Production
European accounts suggest a gradual decline in agricultural production during the latter half of the 17th century. This decline was attributed to a combination of factors, including oppressive taxation, neglect of irrigation systems, and the diversion of land to cash crops. The decline in agricultural production led to rising food prices, increased poverty, and widespread social unrest.
Regional Variations
The agrarian crisis was not uniform across India. Regions like Bengal and Bihar, with their relatively fertile land and efficient irrigation systems, were less affected than the Deccan and Gujarat, which were prone to droughts and famines. The Deccan, in particular, suffered heavily due to Aurangzeb’s prolonged military campaigns and his harsh policies towards the Marathas. The increasing commercialization of agriculture in regions like Gujarat also contributed to the agrarian crisis.
Conclusion
The accounts of European travelers provide a crucial, albeit often biased, window into the agrarian crisis of 17th-century India. They reveal a complex interplay of factors – oppressive Mughal policies, ecological vulnerabilities, and the increasing commercialization of agriculture – that led to widespread peasant unrest, devastating famines, and a decline in agricultural production. While these accounts need to be critically assessed, they offer invaluable insights into the socio-economic conditions of the time and the challenges faced by the Indian peasantry. The crisis laid the groundwork for the political and economic instability that characterized the 18th century, ultimately contributing to the decline of the Mughal empire.
Answer Length
This is a comprehensive model answer for learning purposes and may exceed the word limit. In the exam, always adhere to the prescribed word count.