Is patriarchy a universal phenomenon ? Critically examine how does patriarchy affect sexual division of labour in societies.

Is Patriarchy Universal?

The universality of patriarchy is a subject of ongoing debate. While the *degree* to which patriarchy manifests varies significantly, the presence of some form of gender hierarchy appears to be a common feature of human societies. Early anthropological theories, like those of Lewis Henry Morgan, posited a universal progression from matriarchy to patriarchy. However, these theories have been largely discredited due to ethnocentric biases and limited evidence.

Nevertheless, scholars like Gerda Lerner argue that while not all societies are equally patriarchal, the historical trend has been towards increasing patriarchal control. She points to the systematic suppression of women’s roles in reproduction, sexuality, and economic life as evidence. Conversely, some societies, like the Mosuo of China, exhibit matrilineal and matrilocal systems, challenging the notion of universal patriarchal dominance. However, even in these societies, men often retain significant political and economic power, suggesting a more nuanced form of gender inequality rather than a complete absence of patriarchy.

Patriarchy and the Sexual Division of Labour: A Historical Perspective

Historically, the sexual division of labour – the assignment of different tasks to men and women – has been deeply intertwined with patriarchal structures. In agrarian societies, men typically controlled land ownership and engaged in activities like plowing and harvesting, considered more physically demanding and prestigious. Women were largely confined to domestic tasks like childcare, food processing, and weaving. This division wasn’t simply based on biological differences but was reinforced by patriarchal ideologies that deemed men naturally suited for public life and women for the private sphere.

The Industrial Revolution further solidified this division. While women entered the workforce, they were often relegated to low-paying, unskilled jobs, reinforcing their economic dependence on men. The concept of the ‘male breadwinner’ and the ‘female homemaker’ became dominant, particularly in Western societies. This division was not merely economic; it was also ideological, shaping societal expectations about appropriate gender roles.

Contemporary Manifestations of Patriarchal Influence

Today, despite advancements in gender equality, patriarchy continues to shape the sexual division of labour in subtle and overt ways.

• Wage Gap: Women consistently earn less than men for comparable work, reflecting systemic biases in hiring, promotion, and valuation of ‘women’s work’. According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2023, it will take 132 years to close the gender pay gap.
• Underrepresentation in Leadership: Women are significantly underrepresented in leadership positions across various sectors, including politics, business, and academia. This is often attributed to ‘glass ceiling’ effects and implicit biases.
• Unpaid Care Work: Women continue to bear the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work, including childcare, eldercare, and household chores. This limits their opportunities for education, employment, and economic advancement. Time Use Surveys in India (2019) show women spend approximately 5 times more time on unpaid domestic work than men.
• Occupational Segregation: Certain occupations remain heavily gendered, with women concentrated in fields like nursing and teaching, while men dominate fields like engineering and finance. This segregation reinforces gender stereotypes and limits career choices.

Variations and Intersections

It’s crucial to acknowledge that the impact of patriarchy intersects with other forms of social inequality, such as class, race, and caste. For example, women from marginalized communities often face multiple layers of discrimination, exacerbating their vulnerability. The experience of patriarchy also varies across cultures. In some societies, honour killings and female genital mutilation are extreme manifestations of patriarchal control. In others, subtle forms of discrimination, such as limited access to education or healthcare, are more prevalent.

Dimension	Patriarchal Manifestation	Example
Economic	Wage gap, occupational segregation	IT sector in India – fewer women in senior engineering roles
Political	Underrepresentation in parliament	India – women constitute approximately 15% of Parliament (as of 2024)
Social	Preference for sons, domestic violence	Son preference leading to sex-selective abortions in some regions of India