Critically examine the theories on population migration.

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration (1885)

E.G. Ravenstein, considered a pioneer in migration studies, formulated a set of ‘laws’ based on his analysis of British census data. These laws, though somewhat deterministic, laid the foundation for subsequent research.

• Law 1: Most migrants move only a short distance.
• Law 2: Migration occurs in steps.
• Law 3: Long-distance migrants usually move to urban areas.
• Law 4: Each migration flow produces a counterflow.
• Law 5: The causes of migration are usually economic.

Critical Assessment: Ravenstein’s laws are useful for understanding historical migration patterns, particularly in Europe. However, they are less applicable to contemporary migration, which is often driven by complex socio-political factors and facilitated by modern transportation. The assumption of a counterflow is also not always observed.

Lee’s Push-Pull Theory (1966)

Everett Lee’s Push-Pull theory is one of the most influential models in migration studies. It posits that migration decisions are based on the interplay between ‘push’ factors – negative conditions in the origin – and ‘pull’ factors – positive conditions in the destination.

• Push Factors: Poverty, unemployment, political instability, persecution, natural disasters.
• Pull Factors: Economic opportunities, political freedom, better living conditions, educational opportunities.
• Intervening Obstacles: Distance, cost, immigration policies, cultural barriers.

Critical Assessment: Lee’s theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding migration motivations. However, it has been criticized for being overly simplistic and failing to account for individual agency and social networks. It also doesn’t fully explain why some people choose to stay despite facing push factors.

Zelinsky’s Mobility Transition Model (1971)

Wilbur Zelinsky proposed a five-stage model describing the evolution of migration patterns in relation to a society’s economic development.

Stage	Characteristics
Stage 1: Pre-modern Traditional Society	High birth and death rates, low migration rates.
Stage 2: Early Transition	Falling death rates, high birth rates, increasing migration.
Stage 3: Late Transition	Falling birth rates, low death rates, peak migration rates.
Stage 4: Post-Transition	Low birth and death rates, declining migration rates.
Stage 5: Re-transition	Very low birth and death rates, potential for increased migration due to aging populations.

Critical Assessment: Zelinsky’s model provides a useful historical perspective on migration trends. However, it is based on the European experience and may not be directly applicable to all societies. The model also doesn’t adequately address the role of political and environmental factors.

Myrdal’s Cumulative Causation Theory (1957)

Gunnar Myrdal, in his work on Asian drama, proposed that migration creates a self-reinforcing cycle. Initial migration from a region leads to a loss of skilled labor, which further depresses the region’s economy, encouraging more people to migrate. This creates a ‘cumulative causation’ effect.

Critical Assessment: Myrdal’s theory highlights the potential for migration to exacerbate regional inequalities. However, it has been criticized for being overly pessimistic and neglecting the possibility of positive feedback loops, such as remittances and return migration contributing to development in the origin region.

New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM)

This theory, developed in the 1980s, challenges the neoclassical economic model by arguing that migration decisions are not made by individuals acting alone, but by households seeking to diversify income and reduce risk. Migration is viewed as a rational strategy to overcome market imperfections and improve household welfare.

Critical Assessment: NELM provides a more nuanced understanding of migration motivations, particularly in developing countries. However, it can be difficult to empirically test and may not fully explain migration flows driven by non-economic factors.