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0 min readIntroduction
The “Eastern Question” – concerning the fate of the Ottoman Empire and the geopolitical power vacuum it represented – dominated European diplomacy throughout the 19th century. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 brought this question to a head, culminating in the Berlin Congress of 1878. Convened by Benjamin Disraeli, the Congress aimed to revise the Treaty of San Stefano, which had heavily favored Russia and threatened British interests. While the Congress ostensibly prevented a large-scale European war, it ultimately failed to provide a lasting solution to the complex issues plaguing the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, instead sowing the seeds for future conflicts that would erupt in the early 20th century.
The Context: The Eastern Question and the Treaty of San Stefano
The decline of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum in the Balkans, attracting the attention of various European powers – Russia, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, France, and Germany. Russia, championing Pan-Slavism, sought to expand its influence in the region at the expense of the Ottomans. The Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878), imposed by Russia on a defeated Ottoman Empire, proposed a large, independent Bulgaria, effectively a Russian satellite state, and significant territorial gains for Russia. This alarmed Austria-Hungary and Great Britain, who feared Russian dominance in the Balkans and the disruption of the balance of power.
The Berlin Congress: A Revision of San Stefano
The Berlin Congress (June-July 1878) was convened to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. Key outcomes included:
- Reduction of Bulgaria: The large Bulgarian principality was divided, reducing its size and autonomy, thereby limiting Russian influence.
- Austrian Occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Austria-Hungary was granted the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, a move that angered Serbia, which had hoped to incorporate these territories into a Greater Serbia.
- British Control of Cyprus: Great Britain gained control of Cyprus, strategically important for protecting its route to India.
- Recognition of Romanian, Serbian, and Montenegrin Independence: These states were formally recognized as independent, but territorial disputes remained.
Why the Congress Failed to ‘Unlock’ the Eastern Question
Despite achieving a temporary respite from war, the Berlin Congress failed to address the underlying issues. Several factors contributed to this failure:
- Unresolved Nationalistic Aspirations: The Congress largely ignored the aspirations of the various Balkan nationalities – Serbs, Bosnians, Bulgarians, and others – for self-determination. The creation of artificial boundaries and the denial of unification fueled resentment and irredentism.
- Great Power Rivalries: The Congress exacerbated existing rivalries between the Great Powers. Austria-Hungary’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina directly clashed with Serbia’s ambitions, creating a long-term source of tension. Russia felt humiliated by the revisions to the Treaty of San Stefano and sought to regain its lost influence.
- The Ottoman Empire’s Weakness: The Ottoman Empire remained weak and unstable, unable to effectively govern its remaining territories. This continued to invite foreign intervention and fueled further unrest.
- Ignoring Local Realities: The Congress was largely driven by the strategic interests of the Great Powers, with little regard for the complex ethnic and religious dynamics of the Balkans.
Seeds of Future Wars
The Berlin Congress, while preventing immediate war, contained the seeds of future conflicts. The following points illustrate this:
- Balkan Wars (1912-1913): The unresolved nationalistic tensions and territorial disputes in the Balkans directly led to the Balkan Wars. These conflicts further destabilized the region and paved the way for the outbreak of World War I.
- Increased Austro-Serbian Tensions: Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, a direct consequence of the Berlin Congress, significantly heightened tensions with Serbia, culminating in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 – the spark that ignited World War I.
- Russian Resentment: Russia’s humiliation at Berlin fueled its desire for revenge and its commitment to supporting Slavic nationalism in the Balkans. This contributed to the complex alliance system that ultimately led to war.
- Continued Ottoman Decline: The continued weakness of the Ottoman Empire created opportunities for further intervention by the Great Powers, exacerbating existing tensions.
The Congress also established a precedent for international conferences attempting to resolve complex geopolitical issues through power politics, often ignoring the legitimate aspirations of those directly affected. This approach would be repeated, with limited success, in the years leading up to World War I.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Berlin Congress of 1878 was a short-sighted attempt to manage the Eastern Question. While it temporarily averted a major European war, it failed to address the underlying causes of instability in the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire. By prioritizing the interests of the Great Powers over the aspirations of the Balkan peoples and exacerbating existing rivalries, the Congress laid the groundwork for a series of conflicts, culminating in the devastating conflagration of World War I. It serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of prioritizing short-term political gains over long-term stability and the importance of addressing the root causes of conflict.
Answer Length
This is a comprehensive model answer for learning purposes and may exceed the word limit. In the exam, always adhere to the prescribed word count.