Trace the growth of Arab nationalism after the First World War. How far was it a reaction to Oil imperialism?

Early Phase (1918-1939): Seeds of Nationalism & Initial Colonial Control

The post-WWI settlement, embodied in the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) and the subsequent Mandate System, deeply disillusioned Arab nationalists. Promises of independence made during the Arab Revolt (led by Hussein bin Ali) were largely unfulfilled. Britain and France carved up the Levant and Mesopotamia into mandates, effectively maintaining colonial control. This period saw the emergence of early nationalist movements, often led by intellectuals and former Ottoman officials.

• Faisal I, briefly King of Syria and later Iraq, attempted to forge a pan-Arab identity but was constrained by colonial powers.
• The Arab Higher Committee (established in 1936 in Palestine) focused on resisting British policies and advocating for Palestinian self-determination.

While oil was becoming increasingly significant – particularly with the discovery of substantial reserves in Iraq – its direct impact on nationalist movements during this phase was limited. Colonial powers were primarily focused on political control, though they were aware of the strategic importance of oil. The initial focus of Arab nationalism was on achieving political independence, rather than directly challenging oil exploitation.

The Rise of Mass Nationalism & Oil’s Growing Influence (1940s-1950s)

The Second World War and its aftermath witnessed a radicalization of Arab nationalism. The weakening of European powers and the rise of anti-colonial sentiment created opportunities for mass mobilization. This period also saw a dramatic increase in oil production and the growing involvement of Western oil companies.

• Egypt’s 1952 Revolution, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, became a pivotal moment. Nasser’s pan-Arabist ideology and anti-imperialist stance resonated across the Arab world.
• The Suez Crisis of 1956, triggered by Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal, demonstrated the vulnerability of Western interests in the region and further fueled Arab nationalist fervor.

Oil became a central issue during this period. Western oil companies, particularly Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later BP) and American companies, held significant concessions, often on unfavorable terms. Nationalist governments began to demand greater control over their oil resources. The Red Line Agreement of 1928, which divided oil concessions among Western companies, became a symbol of foreign exploitation. Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal was partly motivated by a desire to finance the Aswan High Dam, which was initially denied funding by the US and Britain, highlighting the link between resource control and national development.

Radical Nationalism & Oil Weaponization (1960s-1970s)

The 1960s and 70s saw the emergence of more radical forms of Arab nationalism, often associated with socialist and revolutionary ideologies. The Six-Day War of 1967 was a devastating blow to the Arab nationalist project, but it also intensified the struggle against Israel and Western influence.

• The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, gained prominence as a symbol of Palestinian resistance.
• The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), formed in 1968, began to assert greater control over oil production and pricing.

The 1973 Oil Crisis, triggered by OAPEC’s oil embargo in response to Western support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, marked a turning point. This demonstrated the power of ‘oil weaponization’ – using oil as a political tool to exert pressure on Western nations. While not solely driven by nationalist ideology, the oil embargo was a clear expression of Arab assertiveness and a challenge to Western dominance. The increased oil revenues also allowed Arab states to fund nationalist movements and development projects.

Fragmentation & The Rise of Islamist Movements (1980s-Present)

The 1980s and 90s witnessed a fragmentation of Arab nationalism, due to internal divisions, economic challenges, and the rise of Islamist movements. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) further destabilized the region. The Gulf War of 1991 and subsequent Western interventions in Iraq and Libya undermined Arab sovereignty and fueled anti-American sentiment.

While oil continued to be a crucial factor, its influence became more complex. Oil wealth often reinforced authoritarian regimes, hindering democratic development. The ‘rentier state’ model, where governments rely heavily on oil revenues rather than taxation, weakened accountability and fostered corruption. The Arab Spring uprisings of 2011, while initially fueled by demands for democracy and social justice, were also influenced by economic grievances related to oil wealth distribution and lack of economic diversification.