Model Answer
0 min readIntroduction
The Mughal empire, spanning over three centuries (1526-1857), left an indelible mark on the Indian subcontinent, extending beyond art and architecture. A particularly significant legacy was a sophisticated and well-organized revenue administration, a crucial element for sustaining the empire’s vast military and administrative apparatus. Prior to the Mughals, revenue systems were often localized, fragmented, and exploitative. The Mughals, building upon existing systems, introduced reforms that streamlined revenue collection, land measurement, and assessment, creating a framework that influenced subsequent administrations, including the British. This commentary will explore the evolution and impact of this Mughal revenue administration at both the state and district levels.
Pre-Mughal Revenue Systems
Before the Mughals, revenue administration in India was largely characterized by:
- Delhi Sultanate System: Based on iqta system, land revenue was assigned to officials (iqtadar) who collected taxes and maintained armies. This system was prone to corruption and instability.
- Local Zamindars: Powerful local landlords (zamindars) often held significant control over land revenue collection, leading to exploitation of peasants.
- Varied Systems: Different regions had different systems of land measurement and assessment, lacking uniformity.
The Mughal Revenue Administration: State Level
Akbar’s revenue reforms, primarily implemented by Raja Todar Mal, were pivotal in establishing a robust revenue system. Key features at the state level included:
- Land Measurement & Assessment (Zabti System): Land was measured using a standard unit, the jarib (approximately 65 acres). Based on land productivity, it was classified into four categories: Polaj (cultivated land), Paraut (land brought under cultivation after abandonment), Chachar (land fallow for 3-4 years), and Banjar (land fallow for 5+ years).
- Revenue Demand (Dastur): Revenue was fixed as a percentage of the average produce of the last ten years, reducing the burden on peasants during unfavorable years. Initially, it was 1/3rd of the produce.
- Centralized Control: The Diwan-i-Revenue, headed by the Diwan (revenue minister), oversaw the entire revenue administration.
- Revenue Collection Hierarchy: A hierarchical structure was established with officials like Subadar (provincial governor), Faujdar (military commander), and Amil (revenue collector) responsible for revenue collection in their respective jurisdictions.
The Mughal Revenue Administration: District Level
At the district level (Sarkar), the administration was further refined:
- Sarkar & Pargana: Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas (sub-districts).
- Qanungo: The Qanungo was a crucial official at the Pargana level, responsible for maintaining land records, settling disputes, and assisting in revenue collection.
- Chowkidar: Responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting local taxes.
- Village Communities: The Mughal administration largely relied on village communities (Mahals) for revenue collection. Village headmen (Muqaddams) and accountants (Patwaris) played a vital role in identifying landholders and collecting revenue.
- System of Patta: Revenue was collected through a system of written permits called Pattas, issued to cultivators.
Evolution Under Subsequent Rulers
While Akbar laid the foundation, subsequent rulers made modifications:
- Jahangir: Continued the existing system with minor adjustments.
- Shah Jahan: Introduced the jagirdari system more extensively, where land revenue rights were assigned to nobles (jagirdars) in lieu of salary. This led to increased decentralization and potential for exploitation.
- Aurangzeb: Further expanded the jagirdari system, leading to increased pressure on peasants and contributing to agrarian unrest. He also reintroduced the Jizya tax, further alienating the Hindu population.
Legacy of the Mughal Revenue Administration
The Mughal revenue administration left a lasting legacy:
- Foundation for British System: The British East India Company adopted and adapted many features of the Mughal revenue system, particularly the land revenue settlement procedures (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System, Mahalwari System).
- Land Records: The detailed land records maintained by the Mughals provided a basis for subsequent land administration systems.
- Administrative Hierarchy: The hierarchical administrative structure influenced the organization of districts and sub-divisions in British India.
- Standardization of Measurement: The standardization of land measurement facilitated efficient revenue collection and land management.
| Feature | Mughal System | British Adaptation |
|---|---|---|
| Land Revenue Settlement | Based on average produce of last 10 years | Permanent Settlement (fixed revenue), Ryotwari (direct settlement with cultivators), Mahalwari (settlement with village communities) |
| Land Records | Detailed records maintained by Qanungos and Patwaris | Continued and expanded land records system |
| Administrative Hierarchy | Subadar, Faujdar, Amil, Qanungo | Collector, Magistrate, Superintendent of Police |
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Mughal revenue administration, particularly the reforms initiated by Akbar and Todar Mal, represented a significant advancement in land management and revenue collection in India. Its well-organized structure at both the state and district levels, coupled with standardized procedures, provided a stable financial base for the empire. The legacy of this system extended far beyond the Mughal period, profoundly influencing the administrative and revenue systems established by the British, and continuing to shape land administration in independent India. While later rulers modified the system, the fundamental principles of land measurement, assessment, and hierarchical administration remained influential.
Answer Length
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