Model Answer
0 min readIntroduction
The period between the 13th and 17th centuries witnessed significant transformations in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in its agrarian structure and the lives of its peasantry. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and subsequently the Mughal Empire brought about new administrative and revenue systems that profoundly impacted the cultivators. While these empires fostered economic prosperity in some respects, the peasantry often bore the brunt of heavy taxation, exploitative landholding patterns, and social inequalities. Assessing their condition requires a detailed examination of the evolving agrarian policies, social hierarchies, and the forms of resistance they employed.
The Delhi Sultanate (13th-16th Centuries)
The early Delhi Sultans inherited a complex agrarian landscape. The initial revenue systems were largely based on plunder and extraction. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) introduced significant reforms, notably the Muhal system, where land was directly controlled by the state and revenue was assessed based on measurement. This aimed to eliminate intermediaries and increase state revenue. However, it also led to increased pressure on the peasantry.
- Categories of Peasants: The peasantry comprised various categories: Khud-kashta (resident cultivators), muzari’a (tenant-at-will), and ghair-muzari’a (subtenants). The Khud-kashta were directly responsible for paying revenue, while the others were intermediaries.
- Grievances: Peasants faced heavy taxation, often exceeding 50% of their produce. The arbitrary nature of revenue assessment, coupled with the harsh methods of collection, led to widespread distress. Forced labor (begar) was also common.
- Revolts: Numerous peasant uprisings occurred during this period, often triggered by oppressive revenue demands. The revolt of the Mewatis under Malik Firoz (early 14th century) is a notable example.
The Mughal Empire (16th-17th Centuries)
The Mughal Empire, particularly under Akbar, brought about a more systematized and arguably more efficient agrarian administration. Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari provides detailed insights into the Mughal revenue system.
Land Revenue System under Akbar
Akbar introduced the Zabti system, a land revenue system based on measurement of land and assessment of rates on the basis of productivity. This system was initially implemented in areas under direct Mughal control. Later, other systems like KanKan (measurement per seed) and Katha (measurement by area) were also used.
- Categories of Land: Land was classified into four categories based on productivity: Polaj (perennially cultivated), Paraut (land left fallow for a year), Chachar (land left fallow for 2-3 years), and Banjar (land left fallow for 4-5 years). Revenue rates varied accordingly.
- Peasantry under Mughals: The Mughal period saw a more defined hierarchy among the peasantry. Zamindars, who were intermediaries, played a crucial role in revenue collection. The actual cultivators were often tenants or sharecroppers.
- Improvements & Challenges: The Mughal system offered some improvements, such as standardized weights and measures and a more rational assessment of revenue. However, the pressure to meet revenue targets remained high, and peasants were often exploited by both the state and the zamindars.
Regional Variations
The condition of the peasantry varied across different regions of the Mughal Empire. In areas with strong local traditions of self-governance, like Rajasthan and Maharashtra, peasants were more resistant to Mughal authority. In Bengal, the Mughal revenue system was often implemented through local intermediaries, leading to increased exploitation.
| Feature | Delhi Sultanate | Mughal Empire |
|---|---|---|
| Revenue System | Muhal System (Alauddin Khalji) - direct control, measurement-based | Zabti System (Akbar) - measurement-based, land classification |
| Intermediaries | Limited, focus on direct control | Zamindars played a significant role in revenue collection |
| Taxation | High and often arbitrary | More systematized, but still heavy |
| Peasant Resistance | Frequent localized revolts | Localized revolts, often linked to zamindar grievances |
Peasant Resistance and its Forms
Peasant resistance took various forms, including:
- Revolts: As mentioned earlier, revolts were common, often triggered by oppressive revenue demands or the actions of exploitative officials.
- Migration: Peasants often migrated to escape oppressive conditions, leading to the abandonment of land.
- Passive Resistance: This included withholding revenue, concealing produce, and engaging in acts of sabotage.
Conclusion
The condition of the peasantry between the 13th and 17th centuries was generally precarious, marked by heavy taxation, exploitative landholding patterns, and limited opportunities for social mobility. While the Mughal system brought about some improvements in administration, the fundamental challenges faced by the peasantry remained largely unchanged. Their resilience was demonstrated through frequent revolts and various forms of resistance, highlighting their agency in the face of oppressive rule. Understanding their plight is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of medieval Indian history and its socio-economic dynamics.
Answer Length
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