The accurate picture of the complex socio-cultural milieu of Peninsular India is presented in the early Sangam literature. Delineate.

Social Structure and Stratification

Sangam society was broadly divided into five *thinai*s (ecological regions) – Kurinji (mountains), Mullai (forests), Marutham (agricultural lands), Neithal (coastal regions), and Palai (arid lands). Each *thinai* had its own distinct occupation, customs, and deities. While not rigid caste divisions as later understood, social stratification existed. The *Velir* chiefs constituted a powerful land-owning aristocracy. There were also priests, merchants, and artisans. The *Kannar* and *Velar* were prominent agricultural communities. Women enjoyed a relatively high status, with evidence of female poets and warriors. Practices like widow remarriage were prevalent, indicating a degree of social freedom.

Economic Life and Trade

The Sangam period witnessed thriving agricultural practices, particularly paddy cultivation in the Marutham region. Cattle rearing was important in Mullai and Kurinji. The Neithal region thrived on fishing and salt production. However, the most significant aspect of the Sangam economy was its flourishing trade. Both internal and external trade were extensive. The three Tamil kingdoms maintained active trade relations with the Roman Empire, evidenced by Roman coins and amphorae found in archaeological sites. Major ports like Muziris (present-day Kodungallur) served as crucial hubs for this trade, exporting spices, textiles, pearls, and other commodities.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The religious landscape of the Sangam period was diverse. The worship of nature deities was prevalent, with Murugan (god of hills) being particularly popular in Kurinji, and Varuna (god of sea) in Neithal. The worship of Kotravai (goddess of victory) was common in heroic poetry. While early forms of Hinduism were present, the influence of Jainism and Buddhism was also significant, particularly during the later Sangam period. Evidence suggests the presence of Buddhist *viharas* and Jain *pallis* in various parts of the Tamil country. Hero stones (*nadukal*) erected in memory of fallen warriors reflect a belief in ancestor worship and valor.

Art, Architecture and Literature

Sangam literature itself is a testament to the artistic and literary achievements of the period. The poems are characterized by their sophisticated language, imagery, and emotional depth. The *Silappatikaram* and *Manimekalai*, two epic poems from the later Sangam period, are masterpieces of Tamil literature. Archaeological evidence reveals the development of rudimentary forms of architecture, including brick structures and megalithic tombs. Pottery, metalwork, and jewelry were also well-developed crafts. Music and dance were integral parts of social life, often associated with religious festivals and royal courts.

Governance and Political Organization

The Sangam period was characterized by the rule of three major dynasties – the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. These kingdoms were often engaged in inter-dynastic conflicts, vying for territorial control and dominance. The rulers were known as *Venthar* and were often glorified in heroic poetry. The administration was largely decentralized, with local chiefs (*Velir*) exercising considerable autonomy. The concept of *Kudai-ul* (royal emblem) symbolized the authority of the rulers. Justice was administered through royal courts, and spies were employed to maintain law and order. The *Puram* poems provide valuable insights into the warfare, diplomacy, and political strategies of the period.

Aspect	Details revealed by Sangam Literature
Social Structure	Five *thinai*s, social stratification, status of women, presence of *Velir* chiefs
Economic Activities	Agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing, thriving internal & external trade with Romans
Religious Beliefs	Worship of nature deities, early Hinduism, influence of Jainism & Buddhism, hero stones
Political System	Rule of Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, decentralized administration, role of *Velir* chiefs