Trace the changing nature of organisation of work in capitalist society over the years.

Early Industrial Capitalism (18th - Early 20th Century)

The initial phase of capitalist work organization was marked by the factory system. This system, fueled by innovations like the steam engine and power loom, concentrated production in large-scale factories. Key characteristics included:

• Division of Labor: Adam Smith’s principles were applied, breaking down complex tasks into simple, repetitive operations.
• Discipline and Control: Strict factory rules, time discipline, and surveillance were implemented to maximize efficiency. Max Weber’s concept of ‘rationalization’ is relevant here.
• Exploitation of Labor: Long working hours, low wages, and hazardous working conditions were prevalent, as highlighted by Karl Marx’s analysis of capitalist exploitation.

This period witnessed the rise of industrial cities and a large, propertyless working class.

Fordism (Early - Mid 20th Century)

Named after Henry Ford’s assembly line production, Fordism represented a significant advancement in work organization. Its core features were:

• Mass Production: Standardized products were produced in large quantities using assembly line techniques.
• High Wages: Ford famously introduced the $5 workday, aiming to create a consumer base for his products.
• Unionization: The growth of labor unions provided workers with some bargaining power and improved working conditions.

Fordism led to a period of relative economic stability and prosperity in the post-World War II era, but it also faced criticisms for its monotony and deskilling of labor.

Post-Fordism (Late 20th Century - Early 21st Century)

Beginning in the 1970s, a shift away from Fordism, known as Post-Fordism, emerged. This was driven by factors like increased global competition, technological advancements (computers, automation), and changing consumer preferences. Key characteristics include:

• Flexible Specialization: Production shifted towards smaller batches of customized products, requiring greater worker flexibility and skill.
• Just-in-Time Production: Inventory was minimized, and production was synchronized with demand.
• Outsourcing and Subcontracting: Companies increasingly outsourced production to lower-cost locations.
• Decline of Unions: Union membership declined, weakening worker bargaining power.

Harry Braverman’s “Labor and Monopoly Capital” (1974) provides a critical analysis of the deskilling and degradation of work under Post-Fordism.

The Rise of the Gig Economy and Platform Capitalism (21st Century)

The latest phase of work organization is characterized by the rise of the gig economy and platform capitalism. This involves:

• Short-Term Contracts and Freelance Work: Workers are employed on a project-by-project basis, lacking traditional employment benefits.
• Digital Platforms: Companies like Uber, Amazon, and Deliveroo use digital platforms to connect workers with customers.
• Algorithmic Management: Algorithms are used to monitor worker performance and allocate tasks.
• Precarious Employment: Workers face job insecurity, low wages, and limited social protection.

This trend raises concerns about the future of work and the erosion of labor standards. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of remote work and further blurred the boundaries between work and life.

Phase	Key Features	Dominant Technology	Labor Relations
Early Industrial Capitalism	Factory System, Division of Labor, Strict Discipline	Steam Engine, Power Loom	Exploitation, Weak Labor Rights
Fordism	Mass Production, Assembly Line, High Wages	Electricity, Conveyor Belts	Unionization, Collective Bargaining
Post-Fordism	Flexible Specialization, Just-in-Time Production, Outsourcing	Computers, Automation	Decline of Unions, Increased Labor Market Flexibility
Gig Economy/Platform Capitalism	Short-Term Contracts, Digital Platforms, Algorithmic Management	Internet, Mobile Technology, AI	Precarious Employment, Weak Labor Protections