Despite gains from the women's movement and state policy of women empowerment, gender equality is far from achieved. Identify two major challenges that prevent this goal from being reached.

Pervasive Patriarchal Attitudes

One of the most significant challenges to gender equality in India is the deeply ingrained patriarchal mindset prevalent across various strata of society. This manifests in several ways:

• Son Preference: A strong preference for sons, rooted in socio-economic factors like inheritance laws and the perceived role of sons in carrying forward the family lineage, leads to sex-selective abortions and neglect of female children. According to the National Family Health Survey-5 (2019-21), the sex ratio at birth remains skewed in several states, indicating continued son preference.
• Limited Mobility and Agency: Patriarchal norms often restrict women’s mobility and agency, confining them to the domestic sphere. This limits their access to education, employment, and participation in public life. Restrictions on women’s dress, social interactions, and decision-making power are common manifestations.
• Normalization of Gender-Based Violence: Patriarchy normalizes various forms of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and dowry-related violence. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data consistently shows a high incidence of crimes against women, with a significant proportion being committed by intimate partners.
• Underrepresentation in Decision-Making: Despite reservations in local bodies, women remain significantly underrepresented in higher levels of political decision-making, and in leadership positions in the corporate sector.

These attitudes are perpetuated through socialization processes within families, educational institutions, and the media, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of gender inequality.

The Intersectional Nature of Discrimination

The second major challenge is the intersectional nature of discrimination. Gender inequality doesn’t operate in isolation; it intersects with other forms of social stratification, such as caste, class, religion, and region, creating unique and compounded disadvantages for certain groups of women.

• Caste and Gender: Dalit and Adivasi women face multiple layers of discrimination based on their caste and gender. They are disproportionately affected by poverty, violence, and lack of access to resources. Their experiences are often overlooked in mainstream feminist discourse.
• Class and Gender: Women from marginalized economic backgrounds face additional challenges in accessing education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. They are often forced to engage in precarious and low-paying work, making them vulnerable to exploitation.
• Religion and Gender: Religious norms and practices can sometimes reinforce gender inequalities, particularly in areas like marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Minority women may also face discrimination based on their religious identity.
• Regional Disparities: Gender inequality varies significantly across different regions of India. States with lower levels of socio-economic development generally have worse gender indicators. For example, female literacy rates are significantly lower in states like Rajasthan and Bihar compared to Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Ignoring these intersectional dynamics leads to incomplete and ineffective interventions. Policies and programs need to be tailored to address the specific needs and vulnerabilities of different groups of women.

Furthermore, the digital divide exacerbates these inequalities. Access to technology and digital literacy are crucial for economic empowerment and social participation, but women, particularly those from marginalized communities, often lack these resources.