Account for the emergence of bhakti in Dravida desa.

Early Socio-Religious Context of Dravida Desa

The emergence of Bhakti was deeply rooted in the socio-religious conditions of early medieval South India. The region was characterized by a complex religious landscape, with a blend of indigenous beliefs, Vedic Brahmanism, and Jainism/Buddhism. The early Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms patronized various faiths. However, Brahmanical dominance, particularly the emphasis on ritualistic practices and caste hierarchies, created discontent among certain sections of society.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Bhakti

• Socio-Economic Changes: The shift from a land-based economy to a more agrarian society, coupled with the growth of trade and urbanization, led to social mobility and the emergence of new social groups. These groups often felt excluded from the traditional Vedic religious framework.
• Influence of Indigenous Traditions: The pre-existing Tamil folk religions, characterized by hero-worship and animistic beliefs, provided a fertile ground for the development of Bhakti. The concept of *Murugan* (Kartikeya) as a popular deity already existed.
• Reaction Against Brahmanical Orthodoxy: The rigid caste system and the complex rituals of Brahmanism alienated many, particularly those from lower castes. Bhakti offered a more egalitarian path to salvation.
• Political Patronage: While initially facing resistance, the Bhakti saints eventually received patronage from various rulers, including the Pallavas and Cholas, which helped spread the movement.

The Nayanars and Alvars

The Bhakti movement was spearheaded by two distinct groups of poet-saints: the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).

The Nayanars

The Nayanars, numbering 63, came from diverse social backgrounds, including Brahmins, Vellalars (agriculturalists), and even lower castes. Their devotional hymns, known as *Tevaram*, were compiled in the 12th century CE. Key Nayanars include Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar. They emphasized the destruction of heretical faiths like Jainism and Buddhism, and promoted the supremacy of Shiva. Their devotion was characterized by intense emotional expression and a rejection of ritualistic formalism.

The Alvars

The Alvars, numbering 12, also hailed from various social strata. Their hymns, known as *Divya Prabandham*, are considered sacred texts in the Sri Vaishnava tradition. Key Alvars include Poygai Alvar, Pey Alvar, and Nammalvar. They emphasized the grace of Vishnu and the importance of *prapatti* (surrender) as a means of salvation. Nammalvar’s *Tiruvaymoli* is considered the most important work of the Alvars.

Impact of the Bhakti Movement

• Social Impact: The Bhakti movement challenged the rigidities of the caste system by advocating for religious equality. Many Bhakti saints came from lower castes, and their teachings resonated with the marginalized sections of society.
• Religious Impact: It led to the development of new devotional practices, such as temple worship and the singing of devotional hymns. It also contributed to the growth of regional languages, particularly Tamil.
• Cultural Impact: The Bhakti movement influenced various art forms, including music, dance, and literature. The *Tevaram* and *Divya Prabandham* are masterpieces of Tamil literature.
• Temple Architecture: The movement spurred the construction of magnificent temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu, which became centers of religious and cultural activity.

Later Developments and Spread

The Bhakti movement gradually spread northwards, influencing religious thought and practice in other parts of India. The teachings of the Nayanars and Alvars were adapted and reinterpreted in different regional contexts, leading to the emergence of new Bhakti traditions. The movement laid the foundation for the later Bhakti saints of North India, such as Kabir, Tulsidas, and Mirabai.