Assess the impact of land tenure system adopted by the British on the peasants and productivity of Indian agriculture.

Pre-British Land Tenure Systems

Before the advent of British rule, land ownership and revenue collection were largely decentralized. Key systems included:

• Zamindari System: Prevalent in Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Uttar Pradesh, where intermediaries (Zamindars) collected revenue from peasants.
• Ryotwari System: Found in South India, where the peasant was recognized as the owner of the land and paid revenue directly to the government.
• Mahalwari System: Common in North-Western India, where ownership rights were vested in the village community (Mahal) as a whole.

British Land Tenure Systems

1. Permanent Settlement (1793)

Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Orissa. Key features:

• Zamindars were recognized as landowners and granted hereditary rights in exchange for fixed revenue payments to the British.
• Revenue was fixed in perpetuity, regardless of fluctuations in agricultural output.

2. Ryotwari System (Early 19th Century)

Implemented by Thomas Munro in Madras, Bombay, and parts of Assam. Key features:

• Peasants were recognized as landowners and directly responsible for paying revenue to the government.
• Revenue rates were high and subject to periodic revision.

3. Mahalwari System (North-Western Provinces)

Introduced in the North-Western Provinces (Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana). Key features:

• The village community (Mahal) was collectively responsible for revenue payment.
• Land was divided into shares, and each shareholder paid revenue based on their share.

Impact on Peasants

The British land tenure systems had a devastating impact on the Indian peasantry:

• Increased Landlessness: Under the Permanent Settlement, Zamindars often exploited peasants, leading to widespread eviction and land alienation. The Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems, with their high revenue demands, also forced many peasants into debt and eventual land loss.
• Debt Trap: Peasants were forced to borrow money from moneylenders at exorbitant interest rates to meet revenue demands, trapping them in a cycle of debt.
• Impoverishment: High revenue demands, coupled with frequent famines and natural disasters, led to widespread poverty and destitution among the peasantry.
• Rise of Intermediaries: Even under the Ryotwari system, a class of revenue intermediaries emerged, exploiting peasants and further exacerbating their plight.

Impact on Agricultural Productivity

The British land tenure systems also negatively impacted agricultural productivity:

• Lack of Investment: Peasants, burdened by high revenue demands and insecure land tenure, had little incentive to invest in improving agricultural techniques or infrastructure.
• Commercialization of Agriculture: The focus shifted towards cash crops (indigo, cotton) for export, neglecting food grain production, leading to food shortages and famines.
• Decline in Traditional Systems: Traditional irrigation systems and agricultural practices were neglected, leading to a decline in overall agricultural output.
• Famines: The rigid revenue collection system, coupled with the commercialization of agriculture, contributed to the frequency and severity of famines in India. The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and subsequent famines are stark examples.

System	Peasant Impact	Productivity Impact
Permanent Settlement	Increased landlessness, exploitation by Zamindars, debt.	Limited investment, focus on rent extraction, stagnation.
Ryotwari System	High revenue demands, debt, land alienation.	Neglect of irrigation, shift to cash crops, vulnerability to famine.
Mahalwari System	Collective responsibility led to disputes, exploitation by village headmen.	Similar to Ryotwari – limited investment, focus on revenue maximization.