Appraise why drought is one of the most common climatic extremes in India.

Geographical Factors

India’s geographical features contribute significantly to its drought vulnerability. The variability in rainfall is largely influenced by the monsoon system, which itself is affected by several geographical factors:

• Rain Shadow Effect: The Western Ghats and the Himalayas create a rain shadow effect, resulting in arid and semi-arid conditions in the leeward sides. Regions like Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau experience consistently low rainfall.
• Topography: The undulating terrain and lack of natural water storage facilities in many regions lead to rapid runoff and limited groundwater recharge.
• Soil Type: Predominance of coarse-grained soils like sandy and loamy soils in many parts of the country reduces water retention capacity, exacerbating drought conditions.
• River Systems: The distribution of river systems is uneven. Many rivers are rain-fed and become dry during non-monsoon seasons, leading to water scarcity.

Meteorological Factors

The erratic nature of the Indian monsoon is the primary meteorological driver of drought:

• Monsoon Variability: The Indian monsoon is known for its inter-annual variability. Failures or delays in the monsoon lead to widespread drought conditions. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) significantly influence monsoon patterns.
• Break in Monsoon: Prolonged breaks in the monsoon, characterized by the cessation of rainfall for extended periods, can lead to drought even in otherwise normal monsoon seasons.
• Anti-cyclonic Circulation: The formation of anti-cyclonic circulation over India can suppress monsoon activity, leading to reduced rainfall.
• Climate Change: Increasing global temperatures and changing climate patterns are altering monsoon behavior, leading to more frequent and intense droughts. Studies suggest an increase in the frequency of extreme rainfall events alongside prolonged dry spells.

Socio-Economic Factors

While geographical and meteorological factors initiate droughts, socio-economic conditions exacerbate their impact:

• Agriculture Dependence: A large proportion of the Indian population relies on rain-fed agriculture, making them highly vulnerable to rainfall variability.
• Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation has led to a decline in water tables, reducing resilience to drought.
• Water Management Practices: Inefficient water management practices, including lack of water harvesting structures and leaky irrigation systems, contribute to water wastage.
• Deforestation: Loss of forest cover reduces groundwater recharge and increases soil erosion, exacerbating drought conditions.
• Poverty and Inequality: Marginalized communities are disproportionately affected by droughts due to limited access to resources and coping mechanisms.

Regional Vulnerability

Certain regions in India are particularly prone to drought:

Region	Key Characteristics	Drought Frequency
Rajasthan	Arid climate, sandy soils, rain shadow effect	High (almost every 3-4 years)
Maharashtra	Deccan Plateau, rain-fed agriculture, uneven rainfall distribution	Moderate to High (every 5-7 years)
Karnataka	Similar to Maharashtra, with a large rain-fed agricultural area	Moderate to High (every 5-7 years)
Telangana	Semi-arid climate, groundwater depletion	Moderate (every 6-8 years)