Model Answer
0 min readIntroduction
Prior to the arrival of the British, famines were a recurring feature of the Indian subcontinent, but they were generally localized and managed through indigenous systems of grain storage, relief work, and credit. However, from the mid-eighteenth century onwards, the frequency and severity of famines in colonial India dramatically increased. This wasn’t merely due to natural causes like monsoon failures, but was deeply intertwined with the economic and administrative policies implemented by the British East India Company and subsequently the British Crown. These policies fundamentally altered India’s agricultural structure and its capacity to withstand climatic shocks, leading to a surge in devastating famines.
Early Phase: Exploitation & Disruption (1760s-1850s)
The initial phase of British rule, particularly after the Battle of Plassey (1757), was characterized by rampant exploitation and disruption of the existing agrarian system. The East India Company prioritized revenue maximization over agricultural well-being.
- Land Revenue Systems: The introduction of new land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal, the Ryotwari system (Maharashtra, Madras), and the Mahalwari system (North India) led to increased land taxes, often exceeding 50% of the produce. This left farmers with little surplus for investment or to cope with crop failures.
- Commercialization of Agriculture: The Company encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like indigo and opium at the expense of food grains. This reduced the area under food production, making the population more vulnerable to famine.
- Destruction of Traditional Systems: Traditional grain storage systems and local famine relief mechanisms were neglected and often dismantled, leaving communities without a safety net.
Mid-Phase: Railway Expansion & Grain Trade (1850s-1900)
The mid-19th century saw the expansion of railways and the development of a grain trade network. While railways were touted as a solution to famine, they often exacerbated the problem.
- Railway’s Dual Role: Railways facilitated the export of grain from famine-affected areas to ports for export to Britain or other regions, even during times of scarcity. This depleted local supplies and drove up prices.
- Free Trade Policy: The adoption of a free trade policy allowed for the unrestricted export of grain, even during famines. This prioritized commercial interests over the needs of the Indian population.
- Famine Codes & Limited Relief: While the British introduced Famine Codes (starting with the 1880 Famine Code), relief measures were often inadequate, poorly administered, and based on the principle of ‘laissez-faire’ – minimal government intervention. Workhouses offered low wages and harsh conditions.
Late Phase: Intensification & Criticism (1900-1947)
The early 20th century witnessed continued famines despite increased administrative capacity and some reforms. Criticism of British policies grew.
- Recurring Famines: Major famines occurred in 1896-1902 (Great Famine), 1899-1900 (Bombay Famine), 1905-1906 (Bengal Famine), and 1943 (Bengal Famine).
- Drain of Wealth: Indian nationalists argued that the famines were a direct result of the ‘drain of wealth’ – the transfer of resources from India to Britain through trade, taxation, and administrative costs.
- Limited Reforms: While some reforms were introduced, such as the establishment of the Famine Inquiry Commission (1944) after the Bengal Famine, they were often too little, too late.
| Famine | Years | Estimated Deaths |
|---|---|---|
| Great Famine | 1876-1878 | 5.5 - 10.5 million |
| Bombay Famine | 1896-1900 | 1 million+ |
| Bengal Famine | 1943 | 3 million+ |
Conclusion
The surge in famines during colonial India was not a natural disaster but a man-made tragedy, deeply rooted in the exploitative economic and administrative policies of the British. The prioritization of revenue maximization, the commercialization of agriculture, the neglect of traditional systems, and the free trade policies all contributed to increased vulnerability and exacerbated the impact of monsoon failures. The famines stand as a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of colonial rule and the importance of prioritizing food security and equitable development.
Answer Length
This is a comprehensive model answer for learning purposes and may exceed the word limit. In the exam, always adhere to the prescribed word count.