What do you mean by offensive and defensive realism?

Core Tenets of Realism

Before delving into the specifics of offensive and defensive realism, it’s important to understand the foundational principles of realism. These include:

• Statism: States are the primary actors in international politics.
• Survival: The primary goal of states is to ensure their survival.
• Self-Help: States cannot rely on others for their security and must rely on their own capabilities.
• Anarchy: The international system lacks a central authority.

Offensive Realism

Developed primarily by John Mearsheimer in his book *The Tragedy of Great Power Politics* (1990), offensive realism argues that states are inherently aggressive and constantly seek to maximize their power. This is because:

• Great powers are always seeking to maximize their relative power: States aim for hegemony, as it is the best way to guarantee survival.
• Anarchy creates a security dilemma: A state’s efforts to increase its security can threaten other states, leading to a spiral of insecurity and conflict.
• States can never be certain of other states’ intentions: This uncertainty reinforces the need to maximize power.

Offensive realists believe that the international system is characterized by constant competition and that war is inevitable. States will exploit opportunities to gain power, even at the risk of provoking conflict.

Examples of Offensive Realism

• Napoleonic France (early 19th century): Napoleon’s relentless expansionist policies aimed at dominating Europe.
• Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II (early 20th century): Germany’s pursuit of a “place in the sun” and its naval build-up challenged British dominance.
• China’s current foreign policy: Some analysts argue that China’s assertive behavior in the South China Sea and its Belt and Road Initiative demonstrate a desire to expand its influence and potentially challenge the US-led international order.

Defensive Realism

Pioneered by Kenneth Waltz in *Theory of International Politics* (1979), defensive realism shares the core assumptions of offensive realism regarding anarchy and self-help. However, it diverges in its assessment of how states should pursue security. Defensive realists argue that:

• States aim to maintain their position in the system: Rather than seeking to maximize power, states primarily seek to maintain their security and preserve the existing balance of power.
• Excessive expansion is counterproductive: Aggressive expansion can provoke a backlash from other states, leading to a loss of security.
• The security dilemma is real, but can be mitigated: States can take steps to signal their intentions and build trust with other states.

Defensive realists believe that the international system is inherently stable, as states are more likely to prioritize security over expansion. They emphasize the importance of alliances and balance of power mechanisms in preventing war.

Examples of Defensive Realism

• Great Britain’s foreign policy in the 19th century: Britain focused on maintaining its naval dominance and preventing any single power from dominating Europe, rather than seeking to conquer the continent.
• The US policy of containment during the Cold War: The US aimed to contain Soviet expansion, rather than attempting to overthrow the Soviet regime.
• Post-World War II Germany: Germany prioritized integration into European institutions and focused on economic power rather than military expansion.

Comparative Table: Offensive vs. Defensive Realism

Feature	Offensive Realism	Defensive Realism
State Goal	Maximize Power/Hegemony	Maintain Security/Status Quo
Expansion	Desirable and Rational	Risky and Counterproductive
Security Dilemma	Intense and Inevitable	Real, but Mitigable
International System	Competitive and Conflict-Prone	Relatively Stable
Role of Alliances	Temporary and opportunistic	Important for balancing power