Elucidate the resurgence of ethno-nationalism from an anthropological lens.

Historical Roots and Evolution

The seeds of ethno-nationalism were sown in the 19th century with the rise of Romanticism and the emphasis on ‘Volksgeist’ (spirit of the people) in Europe. This period saw a focus on shared language, folklore, and history as defining characteristics of nations. However, early nationalism was often civic, based on shared political values and institutions. The shift towards ethno-nationalism became more pronounced in the 20th century, particularly in contexts of colonialism, post-colonial state formation, and the disintegration of empires. The Balkan conflicts of the 1990s, following the breakup of Yugoslavia, are a stark example of the violent consequences of ethno-nationalist ideologies.

Anthropological Perspectives on Ethno-Nationalism

Primordialism

Primordialism, associated with scholars like Clifford Geertz, argues that ethnic identities are deeply rooted in ancient ties of kinship, religion, and language. These ties are seen as ‘given’ rather than constructed, and they evoke strong emotional attachments. From this perspective, ethno-nationalism is a natural expression of these pre-existing primordial bonds. However, critics argue that primordialism overemphasizes the unchanging nature of identity and ignores the role of political manipulation.

Instrumentalism

In contrast to primordialism, instrumentalism, championed by scholars like Ernest Gellner, views ethnicity and nationalism as tools used by elites to mobilize populations for political and economic gain. Ethnic identities are not inherently meaningful but are constructed and manipulated to serve specific interests. Ethno-nationalist leaders exploit existing cultural differences or create new ones to consolidate power and resources. This perspective highlights the agency of political actors in shaping national identities.

Constructed Identity

The constructivist approach, influenced by Benedict Anderson’s ‘Imagined Communities’ (1983), argues that nations are socially constructed entities. National identity is not based on objective criteria but on shared narratives, symbols, and rituals that create a sense of collective belonging. This perspective emphasizes the role of media, education, and cultural production in shaping national consciousness. Ethno-nationalism, from this viewpoint, is a particular form of national identity construction that emphasizes ethnic boundaries.

Contemporary Resurgence of Ethno-Nationalism

• Europe: The rise of right-wing populist parties across Europe, such as the National Rally in France and Alternative for Germany (AfD), often relies on ethno-nationalist rhetoric, emphasizing cultural homogeneity and anti-immigrant sentiment. Brexit in the UK (2016) was partly fueled by a desire to reclaim national sovereignty and control borders, appealing to a sense of English national identity.
• Asia: In Myanmar, the persecution of the Rohingya minority exemplifies ethno-nationalism, where the Rohingya are denied citizenship and considered ‘foreigners’ despite centuries of presence in the country. Similarly, in India, the emphasis on ‘Hindutva’ as a national identity has led to increased polarization and discrimination against religious minorities.
• Africa: Ethnic tensions and conflicts in countries like Rwanda, Ethiopia, and South Sudan are often rooted in ethno-nationalist ideologies. Competition for resources and political power along ethnic lines has fueled violence and instability.
• Russia: The concept of ‘Russkiy Mir’ (Russian World) promotes a sense of shared cultural and linguistic identity among Russian speakers in neighboring countries, justifying interventionist policies and territorial claims.

The Role of Globalization and Modernity

Paradoxically, the resurgence of ethno-nationalism often occurs in the context of globalization and increasing interconnectedness. Globalization can lead to a sense of cultural insecurity and a desire to reaffirm local identities. Modernity, with its emphasis on individualism and rationalization, can also create a sense of alienation and a longing for traditional forms of belonging. Ethno-nationalism offers a sense of community and purpose in a rapidly changing world.