Model Answer
0 min readIntroduction
Prior to British rule, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence-oriented, with limited surplus production and localized trade. While internal trade networks existed, commercialization was not widespread. The advent of British rule and the imposition of new revenue systems fundamentally altered this landscape. British revenue policies, designed primarily to secure a stable income for the colonial administration, inadvertently – and sometimes deliberately – spurred the commercialization of Indian agriculture. However, this process was not uniform across the country and came with significant socio-economic consequences. This answer will critically examine the extent to which British revenue policies accelerated the pace of commercialization in Indian agriculture.
Pre-British Agricultural Scenario
Before the British, Indian agriculture was characterized by a village-based economy. Land ownership was often communal, and the focus was on self-sufficiency. While some regions specialized in certain crops (e.g., Bengal’s rice production, Gujarat’s cotton), these were largely driven by local demand and limited long-distance trade. The Mughal system of land revenue, while exploitative, was often flexible and adapted to local conditions.
British Revenue Systems and Commercialization
1. The Permanent Settlement (1793) – Bengal, Bihar, Orissa
Introduced by Lord Cornwallis, the Permanent Settlement created a class of Zamindars who were recognized as landowners and responsible for collecting revenue. This system incentivized Zamindars to maximize agricultural production to ensure their profits. This led to:
- Increased Land Revenue Demand: Zamindars, seeking to meet the fixed revenue demand, often compelled tenants to grow cash crops like indigo and opium.
- Subinfeudation: Zamindars further sublet land to tenants, creating a complex hierarchy and increasing exploitation.
- Commercialization of Crops: The demand for revenue pushed farmers towards cultivating commercially viable crops for the market.
2. The Ryotwari System (1820s) – Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam
This system involved direct settlement with the peasant cultivator. While theoretically more equitable, it also had commercializing effects:
- High Revenue Demand: The revenue demand was often high, forcing peasants to borrow money from moneylenders and cultivate cash crops to repay their debts.
- Land Alienation: Failure to pay revenue led to land being auctioned off, resulting in land alienation and the rise of a landless labor force.
- Focus on Cash Crops: The need to generate income to meet revenue demands encouraged the cultivation of crops like cotton and sugarcane.
3. The Mahalwari System (1833) – North-Western Provinces, Punjab, parts of Central India
This system combined elements of both the Permanent and Ryotwari systems, settling revenue with the village community (Mahal).
- Village Responsibility: The village community was collectively responsible for revenue payment, encouraging cooperation but also potentially leading to pressure on individual farmers.
- Commercialization through Market Integration: The system facilitated the integration of villages into the wider market economy, promoting the cultivation of commercial crops.
Extent of Commercialization & Contributing Factors
The British revenue policies undeniably contributed to the commercialization of Indian agriculture. However, it wasn’t the sole driver. Other factors included:
- Demand from Industrializing Britain: The burgeoning textile industry in Britain created a huge demand for raw cotton, leading to its widespread cultivation in India.
- Development of Infrastructure: The construction of railways, roads, and canals facilitated the transportation of agricultural produce to markets. (e.g., The Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 1853)
- Rise of a Merchant Class: The growth of trade led to the emergence of a class of Indian merchants who played a crucial role in connecting farmers to markets.
Negative Consequences of Commercialization
The commercialization of agriculture under British rule was not without its drawbacks:
- Famines: The shift to cash crops often led to a decline in food grain production, making India more vulnerable to famines. (e.g., The Great Bengal Famine of 1943, exacerbated by wartime policies)
- Indebtedness: High revenue demands and fluctuating market prices led to widespread indebtedness among peasants.
- Landlessness: Land alienation increased, creating a large class of landless laborers.
- Decline of Traditional Crafts: The influx of cheap manufactured goods from Britain undermined traditional Indian crafts, further impoverishing rural communities.
| Revenue System | Region | Impact on Commercialization |
|---|---|---|
| Permanent Settlement | Bengal, Bihar, Orissa | High – incentivized Zamindars to maximize production of cash crops. |
| Ryotwari System | Madras, Bombay | Moderate – High revenue demands pushed peasants towards cash crops. |
| Mahalwari System | North-Western Provinces | Moderate – Facilitated market integration and commercial crop cultivation. |
Conclusion
In conclusion, British revenue policies played a significant role in accelerating the pace of commercialization in Indian agriculture. While these policies were primarily designed to maximize revenue for the colonial state, they inadvertently created conditions that encouraged the cultivation of cash crops and the integration of Indian agriculture into the global market. However, this commercialization was often exploitative and came at a significant cost, leading to increased indebtedness, landlessness, and vulnerability to famines. The process was also influenced by external factors like the demand from British industries and infrastructural developments. Therefore, while British revenue policies were a crucial catalyst, a comprehensive understanding requires acknowledging the interplay of various economic and political forces.
Answer Length
This is a comprehensive model answer for learning purposes and may exceed the word limit. In the exam, always adhere to the prescribed word count.