Trace the different stages of European economic integration.

Stage 1: Foundations of Cooperation (1950s)

The initial impetus for European economic integration came from the desire to prevent another war and foster economic interdependence. This led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, through the Treaty of Paris.

• ECSC (1951): Six founding members – Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands – pooled their coal and steel resources, crucial for war production, under a common High Authority. This aimed to make war materially impossible.
• European Economic Community (EEC) & Euratom (1957): The Treaties of Rome established the EEC, aiming for a common market, and Euratom, focusing on atomic energy cooperation. The EEC sought to eliminate trade barriers, establish a customs union, and promote free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.

Stage 2: Consolidation and Expansion (1960s-1970s)

This period saw the EEC solidify its foundations and expand its membership. The focus shifted towards establishing a customs union and addressing agricultural policy.

• Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (1962): Introduced to ensure food security and stabilize agricultural markets, CAP became a significant component of the EEC budget.
• First Enlargement (1973): Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the EEC, expanding its reach and influence.
• European Monetary System (EMS) (1979): Established to reduce exchange rate volatility among member states, paving the way for future monetary integration.

Stage 3: Deepening Integration – The Single Market (1980s-1992)

This stage focused on completing the internal market and removing remaining barriers to trade and movement.

• Single European Act (SEA) (1986): Amended the Treaty of Rome, setting a deadline of 1992 for the completion of the single market. It streamlined decision-making processes and expanded the EEC’s competencies.
• Completion of the Single Market (1993): The four freedoms – free movement of goods, services, capital, and people – were largely realized, creating a more integrated European economy.

Stage 4: Monetary Union and Beyond (1990s-Present)

The culmination of decades of integration was the creation of the Eurozone and the subsequent expansion of the EU.

• Maastricht Treaty (1992): Established the European Union (EU) and laid the groundwork for the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), including the introduction of a single currency – the Euro.
• Launch of the Euro (1999/2002): The Euro was initially introduced as an accounting currency in 1999, and physical Euro coins and banknotes were circulated in 2002.
• Subsequent Enlargements: The EU has expanded significantly, particularly in the 2000s, incorporating countries from Central and Eastern Europe. (e.g., Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic in 2004)
• Lisbon Treaty (2009): Further streamlined EU institutions and decision-making processes, enhancing its democratic legitimacy.
• Brexit (2020): The United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the EU marked a significant turning point, raising questions about the future of European integration.

Stage	Years	Key Features	Key Treaties/Institutions
Foundations	1950s	Coal & Steel cooperation, initial economic integration	ECSC, Treaties of Rome (EEC & Euratom)
Consolidation	1960s-1970s	Customs Union, CAP, Membership Expansion	CAP, First Enlargement, EMS
Single Market	1980s-1992	Removal of trade barriers, Four Freedoms	Single European Act
Monetary Union	1990s-Present	Euro introduction, EU expansion, Institutional reforms	Maastricht Treaty, Lisbon Treaty, Eurozone