Differentiate between the Carvākas' refutation of self as a transcendental category and the Buddhist rejection of ātmā.

Carvaka Refutation of Self

Carvaka, also known as Lokāyata, is a materialistic school of thought that asserts that perception (pratyakṣa) is the only valid source of knowledge. They reject all forms of inference, including those that posit the existence of a soul or self. For Carvakas, consciousness is not a property of a separate self but an emergent property of the body, specifically the brain. When the body dies, consciousness ceases to exist, just as the fragrance ceases when the flower is crushed.

• Rejection of Inference: Carvakas argue that inferences about a self beyond direct perception are unreliable and unnecessary. They challenge the validity of any knowledge claim not grounded in sensory experience.
• Body as the Basis of Consciousness: Consciousness is seen as arising from the combination of bodily elements (earth, water, fire, air). There is no independent entity called ‘self’ that owns or experiences consciousness.
• Denial of Rebirth and Afterlife: Since there is no self, there is no basis for rebirth or any post-mortem existence. Death is the complete annihilation of the individual.

Buddhist Rejection of Ātmā (Anatta)

Buddhism, particularly the Theravada school, rejects the notion of a permanent, unchanging self (ātman) through the doctrine of Anatta (non-self). However, this rejection is not a simple denial of existence. Instead, Buddhism argues that what we perceive as ‘self’ is merely a collection of five aggregates (skandhas): form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

• Five Skandhas: The ‘self’ is not a singular entity but a constantly changing stream of these five aggregates. None of these aggregates, individually or collectively, constitute a permanent self.
• Impermanence (Anicca): All phenomena, including the skandhas, are impermanent. Because everything is in a state of flux, there can be no enduring self.
• Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda): All phenomena arise in dependence upon other phenomena. The ‘self’ is not an independent entity but arises due to a complex web of causes and conditions.
• Middle Way: Buddhism avoids both eternalism (the belief in a permanent self) and nihilism (the belief in complete non-existence). The rejection of self is not a denial of experience but a recognition of its impermanent and conditioned nature.

Comparing the Refutations

While both schools deny a transcendental self, their approaches differ significantly. Carvaka’s refutation is fundamentally reductive and materialistic, grounding its denial in the limitations of perception. It’s a blunt rejection of anything beyond the empirically verifiable. Buddhism’s rejection, however, is analytical and phenomenological. It doesn’t deny experience but deconstructs the notion of ‘self’ through a detailed examination of consciousness and the nature of reality.

Feature	Carvaka	Buddhism
Epistemology	Radical Empiricism (perception only)	Phenomenological Analysis (impermanence, dependent origination)
Nature of Denial	Complete rejection of self as a non-perceivable entity	Deconstruction of self as a conceptual construct lacking inherent existence
Basis of Consciousness	Emergent property of the body	Arises from the interaction of the five skandhas
Implications for Afterlife	Complete annihilation at death	Rebirth based on karma, but no permanent self transmigrates

Furthermore, Carvaka’s denial of self leads to a rejection of moral responsibility based on future consequences, as there is no self to experience those consequences. Buddhism, while rejecting a permanent self, maintains a robust ethical framework based on karma and the intention behind actions, which shape future experiences within the cycle of rebirth.