(c) Critically evaluate the major stages in the development of art and literature in early medieval India and explain how these stages reflected the broader changes in society and patterns of patronage during the period.

Major Stages in the Development of Art in Early Medieval India

The art of early medieval India was predominantly religious, with temple architecture and sculpture being its most significant expressions. This period saw a shift from earlier Buddhist rock-cut architecture to a dominance of Hindu structural temples, characterized by distinct regional styles.

1. Temple Architecture: Regional Diversification (8th-12th Century CE)

The early medieval period is marked by the crystallization of three prominent styles of temple architecture: Nagara in North India, Dravida in South India, and Vesara in the Deccan, representing a departure from the pan-Indian Gupta style.

• Nagara Style (North India):
  • Characterized by a curvilinear shikhara (tower) and the absence of elaborate boundary walls or gateways. Temples were often built on high stone platforms with steps.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: The decentralized political structure, with numerous Rajput kingdoms (e.g., Gurjara-Pratiharas, Chandellas, Solankis), led to localized variations within the Nagara style. Royal patronage was crucial, with kings competing to build grand temples as symbols of power and devotion. The rise of new castes like the Kayasthas, who often served as administrators, also contributed to the wealth and resources available for such projects.
  • Examples: Khajuraho temples (Chandellas, 9th-11th century CE) with their intricate sculptures depicting secular and erotic themes alongside divine ones; Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar, Odisha) and Sun Temple (Konark, Odisha) by the Eastern Ganga dynasty, showcasing distinct Kalinga architecture.
• Dravida Style (South India):
  • Distinguished by pyramid-like multi-storeyed vimanas, elaborate entrance gateways (gopurams), and enclosed within a compound wall.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: Strong, centralized southern empires like the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras provided consistent royal patronage. The massive scale of these temples often involved local communities and craft guilds, reflecting a more organized and hierarchical society. The Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion, found expression in these temples, making them centers of social and religious life.
  • Examples: Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, 8th century CE), Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur (Cholas, 11th century CE), showcasing the pinnacle of Dravida architecture and reflecting imperial power.
• Vesara Style (Deccan):
  • A hybrid style incorporating elements from both Nagara and Dravida traditions, characterized by a fusion of forms.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: Dynasties like the Chalukyas (Badami, Kalyani), Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas, situated at the crossroads of northern and southern cultural influences, nurtured this syncretic style. Patronage from these regional rulers fostered a unique artistic synthesis, reflecting the diverse cultural exchanges in the Deccan.
  • Examples: Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal (Chalukyas, 8th century CE), Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (Hoysalas, 12th century CE).

2. Sculpture and Decorative Arts (7th-12th Century CE)

Sculpture during this period primarily served as architectural embellishment for temples. There was a progression from relatively plastic and flowing forms to more linear and intricate carvings.

• Northern Sculpture:
  • Initial decline of classical forms, followed by the evolution of new styles emphasizing a more unified and stable appearance by the 10th century. Intricate carvings depicted mythological scenes and narratives from epics.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: The shift towards highly detailed and often narrative sculptures mirrored the increasing complexity of Puranic Hinduism and the need to visually convey religious stories to a diverse populace. Local guilds of artisans were supported by regional rulers and religious institutions.
  • Examples: Sculptures at Khajuraho depicting celestial beings, deities, and daily life; Sun Temple at Konark with its elaborate chariot wheels and figures.
• Southern Sculpture (Bronze and Stone):
  • Particularly famous for Chola bronze sculptures, characterized by their exquisite craftsmanship, emotional depth, and iconographic precision. Stone sculptures in South India continued the Pallava tradition of monolithic and rock-cut forms, eventually transitioning to elaborate structural temple decorations.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: The flourishing bronze art, especially under the Cholas, reflected a prosperous empire with resources to invest in elaborate ritual art. The iconic Nataraja bronze, for instance, embodied philosophical concepts of creation and destruction, resonating with the prevalent Shaivite beliefs and royal devotion.
  • Examples: Chola Bronzes, especially the Nataraja (9th-13th century CE); relief sculptures at Mahabalipuram like "Arjuna's Penance" (7th century CE).

Major Stages in the Development of Literature in Early Medieval India

The early medieval period witnessed a significant linguistic transformation, with the decline of Sanskrit as the sole literary language and the rise of vernacular languages, fostering a more accessible and diverse literary landscape.

1. Continuity and Evolution of Sanskrit Literature (7th-12th Century CE)

Despite the emergence of regional languages, Sanskrit continued to be patronized by royal courts and elite scholars, though its character evolved.

• Courtly Epics and Commentaries:
  • Sanskrit literature in royal courts produced grand epics, plays, and philosophical treatises, often characterized by ornate style and complex structures. Commentaries on existing texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas also flourished.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: Sanskrit remained the language of the elite, academia, and religious discourse, supported by royal patronage (e.g., Pala Empire known for Sanskrit literature) and temple-monastery complexes. The works were primarily for a learned audience (gosthis), reflecting the intellectual pursuits of the upper strata of society.
  • Examples: Naishadhiyacharitam by Shriharsha (under Gahadawala king Jayachandra of Kannauj), Rajatarangini by Kalhana (a unique historical chronicle from Kashmir, 12th century CE), Gita Govindam by Jayadeva (12th century CE), known for its musical quality.
• Puranic Literature:
  • The Puranas, containing myths, legends, and genealogies, continued to be important in disseminating religious ideas, particularly those of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. Upa-puranas also gained prominence.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: Puranic literature was crucial in shaping the religious mentality of the masses and integrating diverse local traditions into a broader Hindu framework. This was often supported by religious groups, temples, and mathas, aiming to promote sectarian beliefs.
  • Examples: Bhagavata Purana (Vaishnava), Markandeya Purana (Shakta).

2. Emergence and Flourishing of Regional Languages and Devotional Literature (7th-12th Century CE)

This was perhaps the most defining literary trend, marking a shift towards literature in languages accessible to the common populace.

• Apabhramsha and Early Vernaculars:
  • Apabhramsha, the final stage of Prakrit languages, gained literary status (700-1000 CE), laying the groundwork for the development of modern Indo-Aryan languages. Concurrently, early forms of Dravidian languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu saw significant literary output.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: The decline of a unified empire and the rise of regional kingdoms fostered a sense of regional identity, leading to the development and patronage of local languages. Religious groups, particularly Jain and Buddhist communities, initially patronized Prakrit and Pali, while later Hindu devotional movements significantly boosted regional language literature.
  • Examples: Buddhist Tantric works in Apabhramsha like Dakarnava. Early Kannada works like Vaddaradhane by Ranna (1012 CE).
• Bhakti Literature:
  • The Bhakti movement, originating in South India with the Alvars (Vaishnavite) and Nayanmars (Shaivite), led to a massive outpouring of devotional poetry in Tamil. These compositions were characterized by simple diction, emotional intensity, and a focus on personal devotion.
  • Reflection of Society and Patronage: This literature democratized religion, challenging the Sanskrit-dominated, ritualistic tradition and making spiritual experiences accessible to all, irrespective of caste or gender. It was patronized by religious groups, temples, and often sung to the masses, reflecting a shift towards popular religious expression. The decline of Pali also paved the way for these new devotional traditions.
  • Examples: Divya Prabandham (Alvar saints, 5th-10th century AD) in Tamil, containing 4,000 poems praising Vishnu. The Vachanas (Kannada) of the Veerashaiva movement.

Broad Changes in Society and Patterns of Patronage

The developments in art and literature during this period were deeply intertwined with significant transformations in Indian society and shifts in patronage.

• Political Fragmentation and Regional Identity: The collapse of larger empires (like the Guptas) and the rise of numerous regional kingdoms (Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas, Palas, Pratiharas, Rajputs) led to intense regional competition and pride. This was reflected in the emergence of distinct regional art styles (Nagara, Dravida, Vesara) and the flourishing of vernacular literatures, as rulers sought to establish their unique cultural identity.
• Feudalization and Land Grants: The system of land grants created a class of local landlords and increased the power of regional elites. This localized power often translated into patronage for local artists and poets, especially those creating works in regional languages or building temples in distinct regional styles. The rise of the Kayastha caste, often scribes and officials, also indicates changes in administrative structures supporting literacy and record-keeping.
• Socio-Religious Transformation:
  • Bhakti Movement: This movement profoundly impacted both art and literature. The shift from abstract Vedic rituals to personalized devotional worship (Puja) made religion more accessible and popular. Art began to depict mythological narratives and deities in more anthropomorphic and emotive forms, while literature saw a massive surge in devotional poetry in regional languages, directly reflecting the movement's ideals of inclusivity and emotional surrender.
  • Caste System: The early medieval period witnessed a proliferation of castes and a rigidification of social hierarchy. While Sanskrit literature often catered to the Brahminical elite, the Bhakti movement and vernacular literature provided avenues for expression and spiritual solace for lower castes and women, sometimes challenging orthodox norms.
• Changing Patterns of Patronage:
  • Royal Courts: Kings continued to be major patrons, commissioning grand temples, sponsoring scholars, and maintaining royal libraries. Their patronage was often a display of power, piety, and legitimacy. However, with political fragmentation, patronage became more localized and diverse.
  • Religious Institutions: Temples, monasteries, and mathas emerged as significant centers of learning and art, independently patronizing artists, sculptors, and writers. They became custodians of cultural traditions, especially with the rise of sectarian religious movements.
  • Mercantile Class: While less documented for this specific period compared to later times, the emerging mercantile classes in certain regions might have also provided patronage, particularly for religious establishments and local art forms.

The table below summarizes the intertwining of art, literature, society, and patronage:

Aspect	Artistic/Literary Development	Reflection of Societal Change	Pattern of Patronage
Temple Architecture	Emergence of Nagara, Dravida, Vesara styles. Grand structural temples.	Political fragmentation, rise of regional kingdoms, assertion of regional identities, dominance of Hindu devotional cults.	Royal courts (competition for grand temples), powerful regional dynasties.
Sculpture	Detailed narrative sculptures, iconic bronze casting (e.g., Chola Nataraja).	Puranic Hinduism, visual dissemination of religious narratives, emphasis on anthropomorphic deities.	Royal and temple patronage, support for craft guilds.
Sanskrit Literature	Courtly epics, philosophical treatises, commentaries (e.g., Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Jayadeva's Gita Govindam).	Intellectual pursuits of elite, preservation of classical knowledge, Brahminical influence.	Royal courts, academic institutions, wealthy patrons.
Vernacular Literature	Rise of Apabhramsha, early Tamil, Kannada, Telugu literature; Bhakti poetry (Alvars, Nayanmars).	Emergence of regional identities, Bhakti movement, desire for accessible religious expression, challenge to Sanskrit hegemony.	Religious groups, temples, local patrons, popular movements.