(a) "The Chalcolithic people were experts in microliths and were also skilful workers in stone." Elucidate.

The Chalcolithic period in India showcased a remarkable continuity and advancement in stone tool technology, even with the advent of copper metallurgy. The people of this era demonstrated a dual mastery, excelling in the creation of miniature stone tools known as microliths, while simultaneously exhibiting a strong command over the production of various other stone implements.

Expertise in Microliths

Microliths were a hallmark of the Mesolithic period but continued to be a crucial part of the Chalcolithic toolkit, often refined and adapted for new purposes. The Chalcolithic people's skill in microlith production is evident in several aspects:

• Precision and Miniature Size: Microliths are typically small, retouched stone tools, usually a centimeter or so in length and half a centimeter wide. Their diminutive size required exceptional precision in their manufacture. They were often made from fine-grained materials like flint, chert, quartz, or chalcedony.
• Manufacturing Techniques: They were produced using advanced techniques such as indirect percussion and pressure flaking, which allowed for the creation of sharp, geometric shapes. The 'crested guiding ridge technique' was also employed, as seen at sites like Navdatoli.
• Variety of Shapes: Chalcolithic microliths appeared in various geometric forms, including lunates (crescent-shaped), triangles, trapezoids, and points. These shapes were not merely aesthetic but functional, designed for specific applications.
• Composite Tools: A key innovation was the use of microliths as components in composite tools. Instead of serving as standalone tools, they were hafted onto bone, wood, or antler shafts to create more effective weapons and implements. Examples include:
  • Arrowheads and Spear Points: Multiple microliths were often set into a wooden shaft to create barbed arrowheads and spear points, significantly enhancing hunting efficiency.
  • Sickles: Microlithic blades were embedded in handles to form cutting edges for sickles, aiding in harvesting cultivated crops.
  • Knives and Daggers: Longer blades formed by combining several microliths served as effective cutting tools.
• Evidence from Sites: Archaeological excavations at sites like Bagor, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, and Navdatoli have yielded abundant microliths, testifying to their widespread use and sophisticated production. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi, microliths were found alongside ground stone tools and bone tools.

Skilful Workers in Stone

Beyond microliths, the Chalcolithic people maintained and enhanced a broad range of stone-working skills, producing a diverse array of larger stone tools that complemented their nascent copper metallurgy:

• Agricultural Implements: While agriculture was developing, stone tools remained essential. They crafted grinding slabs (querns) and handstones for processing grains, and occasionally stone axes for clearing land or woodworking.
• Domestic Tools: Scrapers were used for processing animal hides, while various blades and borers were employed for everyday tasks. Stone pestles and mortars were used for crushing and grinding, potentially for pigments or food.
• Quarrying and Processing: For activities like pottery production, stone tools were essential at various stages. Picks were used for quarrying claystone, while mortars and pestles were used for processing raw materials. Smoothers, burnishers, and polishers were utilized for surface finishing of pottery.
• Raw Material Selection: Their skill extended to identifying and utilizing suitable raw materials for different tools. Chert and quartzite were common for blades and axes, while semi-precious stones like chalcedony, jasper, agate, and carnelian were used for making beads and ornaments, indicating specialized craft skills.
• Tool Variety and Specialization: The range of stone tools included:
  • Blades: Longer, sharper blades for cutting and slicing.
  • Scrapers: For preparing hides.
  • Querns and Mullers: For grinding cereals.
  • Axes and Adzes: For woodworking and clearing.
  • Arrowheads: Larger stone arrowheads, alongside microlithic ones.
• Regional Variations: Different Chalcolithic cultures developed distinct stone tool assemblages. For instance, while Ahar culture is notable for the absence of stone axes or blades, Gilund had a prominent stone-blade industry. Navdatoli in the Malwa culture is known for its large amount of chalcedony blades and microliths.

The Chalcolithic period was thus a fascinating blend of old and new technologies. The continuous reliance on and advanced production of diverse stone tools, particularly the sophisticated microliths, underscores that the introduction of copper did not immediately render stone technology obsolete. Instead, it coexisted, demonstrating the Chalcolithic people's adaptability and ingenious utilization of available resources to meet their subsistence and craft needs.