(c) Discuss the development of Hindi literature under Mughal patronage. How did the Bhakti and Sufi Movements influence it ?

Development of Hindi Literature Under Mughal Patronage

While the Mughal court primarily patronized Persian literature, their rule created a conducive environment for the flourishing of Hindi literature. The peace and stability brought by the empire allowed regional literary traditions to develop and circulate widely. Although direct imperial patronage for Hindi poets was somewhat limited compared to Persian, it was significant, especially during certain reigns, and was complemented by the support of Mughal nobles and regional rulers.

• Akbar's Reign (1556-1605): Often considered the 'golden age' of Hindi poetry during the Mughal period. Akbar's policy of religious tolerance and his interest in diverse cultures fostered an atmosphere where Hindi literature could thrive.
  • Court Poets and Scholars: Many prominent Hindi poets were associated with Akbar's court, including Raja Birbal, Raja Man Singh, Raja Bhagwan Das, and the famous Muslim poet Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Khan-i-Khanan composed extensively in Braj Bhasha, producing memorable 'dohas' and 'barvais' that blended Bhakti poetry with Persian ideas.
  • Literary Forms: The period saw the development and popularization of poetic forms like 'doha', 'chaupai', and 'pad'.
• Jahangir (1605-1627): Continued the patronage of literature. While his autobiography, 'Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri', was in Turkish (later translated to Persian), the general encouragement of arts benefited Hindi literature indirectly.
• Shah Jahan (11628-1658): Maintained the tradition of supporting Hindi poets. Sundar Kaviray, who composed 'Sundar Shringar', was patronized by Shah Jahan and honored with titles like Kaviraya and Mahakaviraya. Other scholars like Chintamani, Mali Ram, and Bihari were also associated with his court. Bihari Lal Chaube, author of the famous 'Bihari Satsai', was patronized by Raja Jai Singh.
• Regional Support: Beyond the imperial court, many regional rulers and nobles, operating under Mughal suzerainty, provided crucial patronage to Hindi poets, ensuring the continuous growth of vernacular literature.

Influence of Bhakti Movement on Hindi Literature

The Bhakti movement, characterized by intense devotion to a personal God and a rejection of ritualism and caste hierarchies, profoundly influenced Hindi literature, making it accessible to the masses through vernacular languages.

• Democratization of Language: Bhakti saints rejected the elitism of Sanskrit and actively used regional languages like Braj Bhasha and Awadhi. This made spiritual teachings and literary works comprehensible to common people, fostering the development and standardization of these dialects.
• Thematic Content: Bhakti poetry predominantly focused on themes of divine love, devotion, spiritual yearning, and the unity of existence. It challenged social dogmas and promoted social harmony.
  • Saguna Bhakti (Devotion to a God with attributes):
    • Ram Bhakti: Tulsidas (c. 1532-1623) is the most influential poet of this school. His monumental work, 'Ramcharitmanas' (written in Awadhi), retold the Ramayana, making the epic accessible and deeply influential in North Indian devotional culture. His 'Vinaya Patrika' is another significant work.
    • Krishna Bhakti: Poets like Surdas (c. 1478-1583), known as the 'blind bard of Agra', composed lyrical verses in Braj Bhasha, primarily focusing on the childhood and youthful exploits of Lord Krishna in his 'Sur Sagar'. Other notable Krishna Bhakti poets include Nand Das, Parmanand Das, and Mirabai, whose devotional 'bhajans' in Marwari blended passion and surrender to Krishna.
  • Nirguna Bhakti (Devotion to a formless God):
    • Kabir (c. 14th-15th century) was a pivotal figure whose 'dohas' and 'sakhis' (often in Sadhukaddi, a mixed language) critiqued ritualism and advocated universal love, bridging Hindu and Islamic thought. His works are simple yet incisive, embodying worldly wisdom.
    • Other Nirguna saints like Dadu Dayal and Maluk Das also contributed significantly to Hindi religious literature.
• Poetic Forms: Bhakti poets popularized and enriched existing poetic forms like 'doha', 'chaupai', 'pad', 'sakhis', and 'bhajans', which became integral to Hindi literature.

Influence of Sufi Movement on Hindi Literature

The Sufi movement, the mystical dimension of Islam, paralleled the Bhakti movement in its emphasis on divine love, tolerance, and inclusive approach, significantly enriching Hindi literature, especially in its Awadhi dialect.

• Syncretism and Universalism: Sufi saints propagated messages of divine love ('Ishq-e-Haqiqi'), universal brotherhood, and tolerance. This resonated with the indigenous spiritual traditions and led to a unique cultural synthesis in literature, blending Indo-Islamic elements.
• Use of Vernaculars: Sufi poets, much like Bhakti saints, used local languages to communicate with the masses. Awadhi, in particular, became a prominent language for Sufi mystical romances. Syed Gesu Daraz, a prominent Sufi saint, was among the first to write in Deccani Hindi, finding it more expressive for explaining mysticism.
• Premlakhyan (Romantic Narratives): Sufi poets composed long narrative poems, often allegorical, that depicted the human soul's quest for divine love through the metaphor of human romantic stories. These 'Premlakhyan' works became a distinct genre in Hindi literature.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi's 'Padmavat' (composed between 1520-1540 in Awadhi) is a prime example. It blends romance, folklore, and allegorical mysticism to narrate the story of Queen Padmini, symbolizing the soul's journey to God.
  • Other notable Sufi works include Mulla Daud's 'Chandayan' and Kutban's 'Mrigavati', both written in Awadhi, and Manzan's 'Madhu Malti'.
• Thematic Depth: Sufi poetry infused Hindi literature with themes of divine love, separation ('viraha'), longing, and the unity of existence ('Wahdat al-Wajud').
• Notable Figures: Apart from Jayasi, other Muslim poets like Ras Khan, a devotee of Lord Krishna, contributed to Hindi literature with works like 'Prem Vatika', depicting Krishna's life.

In essence, the stability of Mughal rule provided the canvas, while the spiritual dynamism of the Bhakti and Sufi movements painted the vibrant literary landscape of Hindi during this period. The interchange between these religious traditions and the regional dialects fostered a rich, diverse, and accessible body of literature that continues to be celebrated.