(c) Critically examine the political, military and administrative factors that led to the transformation of the Maratha character in the 18th century. How did these changes influence its rise and eventual decline?

The 18th century was a period of dramatic change for the Maratha Empire. The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 and the subsequent weakening of the Mughal Empire created a power vacuum that the Marathas, under the leadership of the Peshwas, were quick to exploit. However, this expansion and the aspiration for pan-Indian dominance led to critical transformations in their character across political, military, and administrative dimensions.

Political Transformation: From Centralized Monarchy to Decentralized Confederacy

• Initial Character (Shivaji's Era): Shivaji established a relatively centralized monarchy with the Chhatrapati as the supreme authority. The Ashtapradhan Mandal (council of eight ministers) assisted him, but ultimate power rested with the monarch. The concept of 'Hindavi Swarajya' provided a strong ideological and unifying force.
• 18th Century Transformation:
  • Ascendancy of the Peshwas: After Shahu's recognition by Bahadur Shah I in 1707 and the appointment of Balaji Vishwanath as hereditary Peshwa in 1713, the power gradually shifted from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwas. By the time of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb), the Peshwa became the de facto ruler, reducing the Chhatrapati to a titular head.
  • Rise of the Maratha Confederacy: To manage the vast empire, a confederacy of semi-independent Maratha states emerged under powerful chiefs (Sardars). Families like the Scindias (Gwalior), Holkars (Indore), Gaekwads (Baroda), and Bhonsles (Nagpur) gained significant autonomy, ruling their regions with little direct control from Poona. This decentralized structure allowed for rapid territorial expansion but fostered internal rivalries and weakened the central authority of the Peshwa.
  • Lack of National Unity: The expansionist ambitions often lacked a cohesive national vision beyond collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. The individual Maratha chiefs often pursued their own interests, leading to a fragmented polity and an inability to present a united front against external threats, as painfully evident at Panipat.

Military Transformation: From Guerrilla Warfare to Conventional Tactics

• Initial Character (Shivaji's Era): Shivaji's military was known for its emphasis on light cavalry, mobility, and effective guerrilla warfare (Ganimi Kava), perfectly suited to the rugged Deccan terrain. The army was disciplined, paid in cash, and focused on hit-and-run tactics against larger Mughal forces.
• 18th Century Transformation:
  • Adoption of Conventional Warfare: With expansion into northern plains, the Marathas increasingly adopted conventional warfare tactics. They began incorporating heavy artillery, infantry, and European-style drills and mercenaries. While this allowed them to engage in large-scale battles and directly challenge the Mughals, it diminished their traditional advantages of speed and adaptability.
  • Dependence on Mercenaries: The reliance on foreign mercenaries and Pindaris (irregular plunderers) increased. While these forces augmented numbers, they often lacked the same loyalty and discipline as Shivaji's native Maratha soldiers, leading to cohesion issues and increased military expenditure.
  • Loss of Guerrilla Ethos: The shift towards a more conventional army diluted the guerrilla ethos that had been the cornerstone of their early successes. This made them vulnerable in pitched battles against well-organized adversaries like the Afghans and later, the British.

Administrative Transformation: From Centralized Revenue to Jagirdari System

• Initial Character (Shivaji's Era): Shivaji implemented a relatively centralized and efficient revenue administration, directly collecting taxes and ensuring peasant welfare. The *saranjam* system, where military officers were paid in cash rather than land grants (jagir), aimed to prevent feudal tendencies. Land revenue was a primary source of income, with Chauth and Sardeshmukhi collected from neighboring territories.
• 18th Century Transformation:
  • Revival of the Saranjami System: The Peshwas, especially after Shahu, revived and expanded the *saranjami* system, distributing jagirs (land grants) to chiefs in exchange for military service. While this helped in rapid mobilization, it fragmented authority, weakened the Peshwa's central control over revenue, and empowered regional sardars.
  • Decentralized Revenue Collection: Revenue administration became increasingly decentralized. Local officials like Mamlatdars and Kamavistars gained significant power. The focus shifted from Shivaji's peasant-friendly policies to maximizing revenue, often through exploitative methods. The Huzur Daftar in Poona remained the central secretariat for records, but effective control over collection waned.
  • Economic Strain: The endless military campaigns and the fragmented administrative structure led to significant economic strain. Peasants often bore the brunt of multiple revenue demands from different authorities, leading to economic instability and reducing loyalty to the Maratha state.

Influence on Rise and Eventual Decline

The transformations in Maratha character profoundly influenced both their ascendance and subsequent decline:

Aspect	Influence on Rise	Influence on Decline
Political	The rise of Peshwas and the Confederacy allowed for rapid territorial expansion, filling the power vacuum left by the Mughals. Regional chiefs (Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads) independently extended Maratha influence across vast areas (e.g., Malwa, Gujarat, parts of Punjab, Bengal, Orissa).	Internal disunity, rivalry, and lack of cohesion among the confederate states weakened the Maratha front (e.g., during the Third Battle of Panipat). The weakening of central authority made them vulnerable to external threats like the British.
Military	Adoption of conventional arms (artillery, infantry) allowed them to engage in large-scale battles against other regional powers and Mughals, expanding their domain. Bajirao I's brilliant cavalry strategies led to significant victories (e.g., Battle of Palkhed).	Loss of traditional guerrilla advantages and over-reliance on conventional, costly European-style warfare. Dependence on unreliable mercenaries and Pindaris eroded discipline and loyalty. The heavy defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) exposed the flaws of their hybrid military system and the lack of a unified command.
Administrative	The *saranjami* system facilitated quick mobilization of large armies for expansion. Effective collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi provided vast resources for military campaigns.	Fragmentation of administration led to oppressive taxation on peasants, reducing their loyalty and economic stability. Lack of a strong, unified central administration to effectively govern the vast, diverse territories. Wealth generated was often squandered on warfare and lavish lifestyles rather than institutional development.

In essence, the very adaptations that enabled the Marathas to rise from a regional power to a dominant force in the 18th century—namely, the decentralized confederacy, adoption of conventional military tactics, and expansion of the *saranjami* system—also contained the seeds of their eventual decline. Their shift from a peasant-based, ideologically driven movement to a feudal, mercenary-dependent, and financially exploitative empire ultimately undermined its foundations, paving the way for British dominance.