Peasant Movements Post-1857 India | UPSC Mains POLITICAL-SCIENCE-INTERANATIONAL-RELATIONS-PAPER-I 2025

Explain briefly the role of Peasant Movements after 1857 and before independence.

How to Approach

To answer this question, one should begin by briefly setting the context of peasant grievances under British rule after 1857. The body should categorize peasant movements into two phases: the earlier, more localized movements (late 19th century) and the later, more integrated movements (20th century, influenced by nationalist leaders). Key movements with examples and their specific demands and impacts should be highlighted. Conclude by summarizing their overall contribution to the independence struggle and agrarian reforms.

Evolution of Peasant Movements (1857-1947)

The peasant movements in India after 1857 can be broadly categorized into two phases, reflecting a shift in their nature, objectives, and leadership:

1. Pre-Gandhian Phase (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century)

These movements were largely spontaneous, localized, and focused on specific economic grievances against immediate oppressors—foreign planters, indigenous zamindars, and moneylenders. They often lacked a broader anti-colonial understanding.

Indigo Revolt (1859-60): Peasants in Bengal revolted against European planters who forced them to cultivate indigo under exploitative terms, offering low prices. The movement was supported by the local intelligentsia and press, leading to the appointment of an Indigo Commission and government notification against forced indigo cultivation.
Deccan Riots (1875): Farmers in Maharashtra protested against oppressive moneylenders (Marwaris and Gujaratis) who exploited them through debt, exacerbated by the collapse of cotton prices after the American Civil War. The riots involved social boycotts and attacks on moneylenders' properties, prompting the passage of the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879.
Pabna Agrarian League (1873-1885): Peasants in the Pabna district of Bengal formed agrarian leagues to resist zamindars' demands for enhanced rents and attempts to deny occupancy rights. They used legal channels and collective non-payment of rent, which eventually led to the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885.

2. Gandhian and Post-Gandhian Phase (Early 20th Century - 1947)

With the advent of Mahatma Gandhi and the rise of nationalist consciousness, peasant movements became more organized, integrated with the national movement, and often saw the participation of nationalist leaders. Their objectives began to encompass broader political demands alongside economic ones.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Mahatma Gandhi's first Satyagraha in India, launched against the 'Tinkathia' system in Bihar, where peasants were forced to cultivate indigo on 3/20th of their land for European planters. This movement successfully abolished the oppressive system and marked Gandhi's entry into Indian politics.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Led by Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, peasants in Kheda, Gujarat, demanded remission of land revenue due to crop failure. The movement, based on non-violent civil disobedience, achieved a compromise where revenue was suspended for the poor.
Mappila Rebellion (1921): A series of peasant uprisings by Muslim Mappila tenants in Malabar, Kerala, against Hindu landlords and the British government. Initially agrarian, it later acquired communal overtones, though rooted in tenant grievances.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, this no-tax campaign in Bardoli, Gujarat, protested against an arbitrary 22% increase in land revenue. The movement successfully compelled the government to reduce the tax hike and highlighted the power of organized peasant resistance.
Kisan Sabhas and All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS): Formed in the 1920s and 1930s (e.g., Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha 1929, All India Kisan Sabha 1936), these organizations provided an institutional platform for peasant demands, advocating for the abolition of zamindari, reduction of land revenue, and security of tenure. N.G. Ranga and Sahajanand Saraswati were prominent leaders.
Eka Movement (1921-22): A peasant movement in Awadh (UP) led by Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders, primarily against high rents, oppression by 'thikadars' (revenue contractors), and forced labor.
Tebhaga Movement (1946-47): Post-WWII, this movement in Bengal demanded two-thirds share of the produce for the sharecroppers (tebhaga) instead of the traditional one-half share, targeting oppressive jotedars.

Significance and Impact

Awareness and Mobilization: Peasant movements generated widespread awareness among the rural masses about their rights and the exploitative nature of colonial rule and its collaborators.
Integration with National Movement: Especially in the 20th century, these movements brought a vast section of the rural population into the fold of the national freedom struggle, providing it with a mass base.
Influence on Nationalist Agenda: Peasant demands influenced the agenda of the Indian National Congress and other political parties, leading to resolutions on agrarian reforms (e.g., Karachi Session 1931).
Legislative Reforms: While partial, some movements led to immediate legislative relief like the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act, 1879, and the Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885, providing precedents for future reforms.
Erosion of Landed Gentry Power: These movements challenged and gradually eroded the entrenched power of landlords and moneylenders, setting the stage for post-independence land reforms.
Emergence of Leadership: Peasant struggles nurtured local and national leaders who played crucial roles in the independence movement.

Additional Resources

Key Definitions

Ryotwari System

A land revenue system introduced by the British in parts of Southern India, where revenue was collected directly from the cultivators (ryots). While intended to eliminate intermediaries, it often led to heavy taxation and exploitation.

Zamindari System

A land revenue system primarily in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, where zamindars (landlords) were recognized as owners of the land and responsible for collecting revenue from peasants to pay to the British. This often resulted in arbitrary rents and evictions for the cultivators.

Key Statistics

The Bengal Famine of 1770, which significantly impacted peasant livelihood and led to early revolts, is estimated to have caused the death of about 10 million people.

Source: Various historical estimates

The All India Kisan Sabha, formed in 1936, rapidly grew in membership, reflecting the increasing organization of peasant movements. By 1938, it claimed a membership of over 500,000 peasants.

Source: Bipan Chandra, et al., "India's Struggle for Independence"

Examples

Nil Darpan Play

Dinabandhu Mitra's Bengali play 'Nil Darpan' (The Indigo Mirror), published in 1860, vividly depicted the brutal exploitation and suffering of indigo cultivators at the hands of European planters during the Indigo Revolt. This play brought national attention to the plight of the peasants and garnered public sympathy.

Awadh Rent Act (1921)

Following the widespread peasant unrest in Awadh, particularly the Eka Movement, the British government passed the Awadh Rent Act in 1921. While it offered some limited relief, such as preventing arbitrary enhancements of rent and granting some occupancy rights, it did not fully address the deeper issues of landlord oppression.

Frequently Asked Questions

▶What was the primary difference in the nature of peasant movements before and after the 1900s?

Before the 1900s (Pre-Gandhian phase), peasant movements were largely localized, spontaneous, and focused on specific economic grievances against immediate exploiters like landlords and moneylenders. After the 1900s (Gandhian phase onwards), they became more organized, integrated with the national independence movement, and were often led by national figures, also encompassing broader anti-colonial aims.