Explain how Rawls used the liberal and egalitarian perspective to develop his concept of distributive justice.

Rawls's Foundational Concepts: Original Position and Veil of Ignorance

Rawls revives the social contract tradition by introducing a hypothetical thought experiment called the "original position". In this theoretical scenario, individuals come together to decide the principles of justice for their society. To ensure impartiality and prevent self-serving biases, these individuals are placed behind a "veil of ignorance."

• Original Position: This is a hypothetical initial agreement situation where parties choose principles of justice. It serves as a fair choice situation, analogous to the "state of nature" in traditional social contract theories.
• Veil of Ignorance: Behind this veil, individuals are deprived of all knowledge about their personal characteristics, such as their social status, class, race, gender, natural talents, abilities, wealth, or even their conception of a good life. They also lack knowledge of their society's economic or political situation. However, they possess general knowledge about human psychology, economics, and social organization.

The rationale behind the veil of ignorance is that if individuals are unaware of their future position in society, they will choose principles that are fair to all, as they could end up in any position, including the worst-off. This thought experiment thus serves as a powerful tool to arrive at universally acceptable principles of justice, free from personal bias.

The Two Principles of Justice: A Liberal-Egalitarian Synthesis

From the original position, behind the veil of ignorance, Rawls argues that rational individuals would unanimously agree upon two principles of justice, which are lexically ordered, meaning the first principle must be satisfied before the second can come into play. These principles embody both liberal and egalitarian ideals:

1. The First Principle: Equal Basic Liberties (Liberalism)

This principle asserts: "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all."

• Liberal Core: This principle prioritizes fundamental individual rights and freedoms, which are hallmarks of liberal thought. These basic liberties include:
  • Political liberties (e.g., the right to vote and hold public office).
  • Freedom of speech and assembly.
  • Liberty of conscience and freedom of thought.
  • Freedom of the person (including freedom from psychological oppression and physical assault).
  • The right to hold personal property.
  • Freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure, as defined by the rule of law.
• Priority of Liberty: Rawls explicitly states that these basic liberties cannot be traded off for greater social or economic advantages. This lexical priority underscores the liberal commitment to the inviolability of individual rights. The fair value of political liberties is also emphasized, meaning all citizens should have a roughly equal chance to influence political outcomes, irrespective of wealth or social standing.

2. The Second Principle: Social and Economic Inequalities (Egalitarianism)

This principle addresses the distribution of social and economic resources and is divided into two parts, also lexically ordered:

(a) Fair Equality of Opportunity: "Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity."

• Egalitarian Aspect: This goes beyond formal equality (careers open to talents) and demands that individuals with similar talents and willingness to use them should have roughly the same prospects of success, regardless of their socio-economic background, class, race, or sex. It aims to mitigate the influence of "morally arbitrary" factors (like birth circumstances) on life chances. Implementing this would require significant social investment, such as in public education and healthcare.
• Addressing Arbitrary Contingencies: Rawls argues that being born into a rich family or possessing natural talents is morally arbitrary and should not disproportionately determine one's life prospects.

(b) The Difference Principle: "Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society."

• Strong Egalitarianism: This is arguably the most distinctive and egalitarian element of Rawls's theory. It permits inequalities in wealth and income only if these inequalities ultimately work to improve the absolute well-being of the worst-off in society. For example, if allowing doctors to earn higher salaries motivates more individuals to become doctors and thus improves healthcare access for the poor, such an inequality would be justified.
• Maximin Rule: The difference principle is often associated with the maximin rule of choice under uncertainty, where rational individuals would seek to maximize the minimum (worst-off) position, as they could potentially end up in that position.

Reconciling Liberalism and Egalitarianism

Rawls's theory masterfully synthesizes liberal emphasis on individual rights and autonomy with an egalitarian concern for equitable distribution. The first principle secures the basic liberties essential for a liberal society, ensuring that no one's fundamental freedoms are sacrificed. The second principle, particularly the Difference Principle and Fair Equality of Opportunity, addresses economic and social inequalities, moving beyond mere formal equality to ensure that societal structures genuinely benefit all, especially those at the bottom. His framework treats citizens as "free and equal" moral persons, capable of pursuing their own conception of the good life, while simultaneously ensuring that societal cooperation is fair and mutually beneficial.