Discuss the role of biological, cognitive and learning influences on gender identity and gender typing by focusing on relevant theories and research studies.

The formation of gender identity and the acquisition of gender-typed behaviors are shaped by a dynamic interaction of biological, cognitive, and learning factors.

1. Biological Influences on Gender Identity and Gender Typing

Biological factors lay a foundational role, primarily through genetics and hormonal exposure, in shaping gender development.

• Chromosomal and Hormonal Factors:
  • Sex chromosomes (XX for female, XY for male) initiate a cascade of biological developments. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome in males triggers testicular development and subsequent testosterone production [16].
  • Prenatal exposure to hormones, particularly testosterone, is believed to "organize" the brain in ways that predispose individuals to certain gender-typed behaviors and interests [11, 22, 26]. For instance, research suggests that higher prenatal androgen levels in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are associated with more male-typical play behaviors and reduced identification with female gender in adulthood [2, 11].
  • Hormonal surges soon after birth and during puberty can further influence gender development [11].
• Neuroanatomical Differences:
  • Studies indicate that the brain itself exhibits sexual dimorphism, with structural and functional differences between sexes. These differences are believed to be the anatomical substrate for psychosexual development, shaped by genes and gonadal hormones both prenatally and during puberty [22].
• The Biosocial Theory (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972):
  • This theory proposes an interactionist approach, suggesting that biological factors (like sex) interact with social labeling and differential treatment to steer gender development [4, 10, 12].
  • It argues that while biological sex provides a predisposition, the way a child is socially labeled and treated based on their perceived sex significantly influences their gender identity and role behavior [12]. For example, studies have shown that parents often describe boy babies as more coordinated and stronger, and girl babies as more delicate, even when no measurable differences exist, indicating social labeling at play [4, 35].

2. Cognitive Influences on Gender Identity and Gender Typing

Cognitive theories emphasize the active role children play in understanding and organizing information about gender, which in turn influences their self-concept and behavior.

• Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory (1966):
  • Kohlberg proposed that children's understanding of gender develops in stages, linked to their general cognitive maturation [6, 18].
    1. Gender Labelling (2-3 years): Children can correctly label their own gender and that of others, but their understanding is superficial [6, 18, 31].
    2. Gender Stability (3-4 years): Children understand that gender is stable over time (e.g., a boy will grow into a man), but still believe it can change based on superficial features like clothing [6, 18, 19, 31].
    3. Gender Constancy (5-7 years): Children grasp that gender is a fixed, unchangeable characteristic regardless of external appearance or activities. This understanding motivates them to conform to gender-appropriate behaviors [6, 18, 19, 31, 41].
  • Research Support: Studies by Slaby and Frey (1975) and Kuhn (1978) affirmed Kohlberg's stages, showing children's progressive cognitive sophistication in gender perception [18, 31].
• Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson, 1981):
  • This theory suggests that children actively construct mental frameworks (gender schemas) about what it means to be male or female, immediately after establishing a basic gender identity (around 2-3 years) [6, 17, 18, 41].
  • These schemas guide their attention, memory, and interpretation of gender-relevant information. Children tend to process information consistent with their gender schema and often ignore or distort information that is inconsistent [6].
  • Research Support: Studies show that children are more likely to play with toys labeled for their own sex, even if the toys are neutral, supporting the idea that gender schemas influence their preferences and behaviors [41].

3. Learning Influences on Gender Identity and Gender Typing

Learning theories emphasize the role of social environment, observation, and reinforcement in shaping gender-typed behaviors.

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977):
  • This theory posits that children learn gender roles through observation, imitation, and reinforcement [3, 5, 7, 13, 20, 25].
  • Observational Learning/Modeling: Children observe gender-linked behaviors of significant others (parents, teachers, peers, media) and model them [3, 5, 7]. For example, a girl might imitate her mother's nurturing behavior if she sees it rewarded [5].
  • Reinforcement and Punishment: Behaviors that align with societal gender norms are often reinforced (e.g., praise for a boy playing with trucks), while those that deviate might be punished or ignored [3, 5, 13, 20]. This "differential reinforcement" is key to gender typing [20]. Fagot's (1978) study observed parents reinforcing boys for playing with masculine toys and punishing them for feminine play, and vice-versa for girls [13].
  • Vicarious Reinforcement: Children learn by observing the consequences of others' gender-typed behaviors. If a model is rewarded for a gender-appropriate behavior, the child is more likely to imitate it [7, 20].
  • Mediational Processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation are cognitive processes that mediate between observing a behavior and imitating it [7, 20].
• Societal and Cultural Norms:
  • Societal expectations, cultural norms, and media portrayals heavily influence what is considered "masculine" or "feminine" [2, 3, 5]. These external factors shape the models children observe and the reinforcements they receive.

Interaction and Integrated Approaches

It is important to note that these influences do not operate in isolation. Modern perspectives often adopt an integrated approach, recognizing the complex interplay between nature and nurture. For example, biological predispositions might be amplified or modified by social learning experiences and cognitive interpretations. The "Genderbread Person" infographic (Sam Killerman, 2012, updated 2018) visually represents gender as a complex interplay of identity, expression, and biological sex [3].

Influence Type	Key Theories/Concepts	Core Mechanism	Research Evidence/Example
Biological	Chromosomal factors, Hormonal exposure (prenatal), Neuroanatomical differences, Biosocial Theory	Innate predispositions, brain organization, interaction of biology with social labeling	CAH girls exhibiting male-typical play (Hines, 2010), parental labeling of infants (Rubin et al., 1974)
Cognitive	Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Gender Constancy stages), Gender Schema Theory	Active cognitive processing, formation of mental frameworks (schemas), stages of understanding	Children preferring gender-labeled toys (Martin & Halverson, 1981), Kohlberg's stages of gender understanding (Slaby & Frey, 1975)
Learning	Social Learning Theory (Bandura), Reinforcement, Observational Learning, Vicarious Reinforcement	Observation, imitation, direct and indirect reinforcement from social environment	Parents reinforcing gender-appropriate play (Fagot, 1978), media influence on gender-stereotypical behavior (Coyne et al., 2014)