Explain the growing salience of ethnicity in the contemporary world with illustrations.

Understanding Ethnicity: Primordialist vs. Constructivist Perspectives

Sociological debates on ethnicity broadly fall into two camps. Primordialism views ethnic identity as inherent, rooted in kinship and shared history, passed down through generations (Geertz, 1963). This perspective emphasizes the emotional attachment individuals have to their ethnic group. Conversely, Constructivism argues that ethnic identities are socially constructed, fluid, and often politically manipulated (Anderson, 1983). This view highlights how ethnicity is not a fixed attribute but a product of historical circumstances, power dynamics, and collective narratives. The contemporary salience of ethnicity often reflects a blend of both – utilizing pre-existing cultural markers for new political purposes.

Drivers of Growing Ethnic Salience

1. Globalization and its Discontents

Globalization, while fostering interconnectedness, also generates anxieties about cultural homogenization and economic insecurity. This can lead to a defensive assertion of ethnic identity as a means of preserving cultural distinctiveness and protecting economic interests. The rise of anti-immigrant sentiment in Europe and North America is a prime example, often framed around preserving national/ethnic culture.

2. Political Mobilization and Elite Manipulation

Political elites frequently exploit ethnic divisions to gain or maintain power. This can involve promoting ethno-nationalist ideologies, fostering a sense of ‘us vs. them’, and mobilizing support along ethnic lines. The Rwandan genocide (1994) serves as a horrific illustration of how political manipulation of ethnic identities can lead to mass violence. Similarly, the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s was fueled by the politicization of ethnic and religious differences.

3. Economic Disparities and Competition

Economic inequalities often exacerbate ethnic tensions. When certain ethnic groups are disproportionately disadvantaged or excluded from economic opportunities, it can breed resentment and fuel demands for greater representation or autonomy. In Nigeria, for instance, competition for oil resources has intensified ethnic rivalries between different groups in the Niger Delta region.

4. State Weakness and Failure

Weak or failing states are often unable to provide basic services, maintain law and order, or protect the rights of all citizens equally. This creates a vacuum that can be filled by ethnic militias or warlords, who offer protection and patronage in exchange for loyalty. Somalia, for decades plagued by state failure, exemplifies this dynamic, with clan-based structures playing a dominant role in political and social life.

5. Transnational Ethnic Networks

Diaspora communities and transnational ethnic networks play an increasingly important role in reinforcing ethnic identities and mobilizing resources. These networks can provide financial support, political advocacy, and cultural connections, strengthening ties to the homeland and influencing events in both the host country and the country of origin. The role of the Sikh diaspora in supporting the Khalistan movement is an example.

Regional Illustrations

Region	Ethnic Dynamics	Illustrative Example
Africa	Post-colonial states often inherit arbitrarily drawn borders that encompass diverse ethnic groups, leading to conflict.	Ethiopia’s ongoing ethnic conflicts, particularly in the Tigray region, demonstrate the challenges of managing ethnic diversity in a multi-ethnic state.
Europe	Increased immigration and the rise of nationalist movements have heightened concerns about cultural identity and social cohesion.	The rise of far-right parties in France (National Rally) and Germany (Alternative for Germany) reflects growing anxieties about immigration and national identity.
Asia	Ethnic and religious minorities often face discrimination and persecution, leading to social unrest and violence.	The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar, involving systematic persecution and displacement of a Muslim minority group, exemplifies the extreme consequences of ethnic discrimination.
Latin America	Indigenous populations often struggle for recognition, land rights, and political representation.	The Zapatista movement in Mexico, advocating for indigenous rights and autonomy, highlights the ongoing struggle for social justice and self-determination.

Consequences of Growing Ethnic Salience

The increasing salience of ethnicity has several significant consequences, including: increased social fragmentation, political instability, violent conflict, and the erosion of democratic institutions. It can also hinder economic development and impede efforts to address shared challenges such as climate change and poverty. However, it's important to note that ethnic mobilization isn't always negative; it can also empower marginalized groups and promote cultural diversity.