Explain different forms of untouchability in India.

Traditional Forms of Untouchability

Historically, untouchability was primarily based on notions of ritual purity and pollution, deeply embedded in Hindu religious beliefs. These traditional forms were often rigidly enforced by social norms and customs.

• Social Exclusion: This involved denying access to public spaces like temples, schools, wells, and cremation grounds to those considered ‘untouchable’ – primarily Dalits (formerly known as ‘scheduled castes’).
• Occupational Restrictions: Dalits were historically relegated to ‘polluting’ occupations like manual scavenging, leather work, and sanitation, denying them access to other livelihoods.
• Economic Exploitation: They were often subjected to forced labor (vetti) and denied fair wages, remaining economically dependent on upper castes.
• Ritualistic Discrimination: This included restrictions on clothing, footwear, and even the manner of walking to avoid ‘polluting’ upper castes. They were often required to announce their presence to avoid accidental ‘touching’.

Modern/Evolving Forms of Untouchability

While overt forms of untouchability have decreased, it has evolved into more subtle and insidious forms, often masked by socio-economic factors and political dynamics.

• Economic Discrimination: Despite affirmative action policies, Dalits continue to face discrimination in employment, housing, and access to credit. Land ownership remains highly skewed.
• Social Segregation: Segregation persists in many rural areas, with separate settlements (bastis) for Dalits, and limited social interaction with upper castes.
• Political Marginalization: While political representation has improved, Dalits often lack real political power and influence, and are vulnerable to manipulation.
• Violence and Atrocities: Despite the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, incidents of violence against Dalits, including honor killings and mob lynching, continue to occur.
• Digital Divide & Exclusion: Limited access to technology and digital literacy further marginalizes Dalits, hindering their access to information, education, and economic opportunities.

Intersectionality of Untouchability with Other Forms of Discrimination

Untouchability often intersects with other forms of discrimination, exacerbating vulnerability and marginalization.

• Gender: Dalit women face a double disadvantage – caste-based discrimination and gender inequality. They are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence and exploitation.
• Class: The vast majority of Dalits belong to the lower economic strata, making them particularly vulnerable to poverty and economic exploitation.
• Region: The intensity of untouchability varies across regions, with some states exhibiting more overt and entrenched forms than others. For example, Rajasthan and Bihar have historically shown higher rates of atrocities.

Form of Untouchability	Traditional Manifestation	Modern Manifestation
Social Exclusion	Denial of access to temples, wells	Segregation in settlements, limited social interaction
Economic Discrimination	Forced labor (vetti)	Discrimination in employment, limited access to credit
Violence	Social ostracism, physical abuse	Atrocities, honor killings, mob lynching