Elucidate the role of demographic and social factors for population growth in India.

India's population dynamics are shaped by an interplay of demographic attributes and deep-rooted social structures. These factors collectively determine birth rates, death rates, and overall population growth patterns.

Demographic Factors

Demographic factors directly impact the size and structure of a population.

• High Birth Rates and Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Historically, India experienced high birth rates. While the TFR has significantly declined, certain regions still exhibit higher fertility. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21), India's TFR has declined to 2.0, which is below the replacement level of 2.1. However, states like Bihar (2.98), Meghalaya (2.91), Uttar Pradesh (2.35), Jharkhand (2.26), and Manipur (2.17) still have TFRs above the replacement level.
• Declining Death Rates and Improved Life Expectancy: Significant improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition have led to a sharp decline in death rates, including infant and maternal mortality. This has resulted in increased life expectancy. The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) has declined from 39 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 27 per 1,000 live births in 2021 (SRS Report 2021). The crude death rate has also fallen from 14.9 in 1971 to 6.4 in 2023.
• Young Age Structure (Population Momentum): India has a large young population, with a significant proportion in the reproductive age group (15-49 years). Even with declining fertility rates, the sheer number of young people entering their reproductive years ensures continued population growth for some time due to population momentum. In 2025, 24% of India's population is in the 0-14 age bracket, and 17% in the 10-19 age group.
• Migration: While international migration has a negligible impact on India's overall population growth, internal migration from rural to urban areas or from less developed to more developed regions contributes to localized population growth and strain on urban infrastructure.

Social Factors

Social factors, often cultural and behavioral, indirectly influence demographic trends.

• Illiteracy and Low Female Education: Education, especially female education, is a crucial determinant of fertility. Studies consistently show an inverse relationship between female education and fertility rates. Literate women are more likely to be aware of family planning methods, have better access to healthcare, and marry later. The Sample Registration System Statistical Report (2023) highlights that TFR is 3.3 for illiterate women compared to 1.8 for literate women.
• Early Marriage and Universal Marriage: Despite legislation like the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, child marriages continue to be prevalent in some parts of India, particularly in rural areas. Early marriage leads to a longer reproductive span for women, contributing to higher birth rates. According to NFHS-5, 23.3% of women surveyed were married before the legal age of 18 years.
• Preference for Male Child: The strong societal and cultural preference for male children in many Indian families often leads couples to continue having children until a son is born, resulting in larger family sizes. This preference is particularly pronounced in communities where sons are considered essential for lineage, economic support, and old-age security.
• Poverty and Economic Conditions: In impoverished communities, children are sometimes viewed as economic assets, providing additional labor for the household and support in old age. This perception can encourage larger families. Conversely, increasing economic prosperity and changing lifestyles in urban areas contribute to smaller family sizes as the cost of raising children increases.
• Lack of Awareness and Access to Family Planning: While access to contraceptives has improved, a lack of awareness about family planning methods and limited availability in remote rural and tribal areas still contribute to higher fertility rates.
• Religious and Cultural Norms: Certain religious beliefs and cultural norms may discourage the use of contraception or advocate for larger families, thereby influencing population growth patterns.
• Status of Women: The overall status of women, including their autonomy in decision-making regarding their health, marriage, and family planning, significantly impacts fertility outcomes. NFHS-5 data shows that while a high percentage of married women have the autonomy to take decisions jointly with their husbands about their health (71%) and use of contraception (82%), only about 10% can take these decisions on their own.

The table below summarizes the contrasting impacts of some demographic and social factors:

Factor	Impact on Population Growth	Recent Trend/Observation
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)	Higher TFR leads to increased population growth.	Declined to 2.0 (NFHS-5, 2019-21), below replacement level.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)	High IMR historically encouraged more births.	Declined to 27 per 1,000 live births (SRS Report 2021).
Female Education	Higher education correlates with lower fertility.	TFR 3.3 for illiterate women vs. 1.8 for literate (SRS Report 2023).
Age at Marriage (Females)	Earlier marriage leads to longer reproductive span.	23.3% of women married before 18 (NFHS-5).
Son Preference	Desire for sons can lead to more children.	Contributes to continued higher fertility in some regions.