(a) "The origin of the territorial republics has been traced to the reaction against the pattern of life that evolved in the later Vedic period.” Analyse.

Understanding the Later Vedic Period

The Later Vedic period marked a transition from a semi-nomadic, pastoral society to a more settled, agrarian one, with expansion into the fertile Gangetic plains. This shift brought about profound changes:

• Rigid Varna System: Society became highly stratified with the Varna system becoming hereditary and rigid. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas emerged as privileged classes, often exempt from taxes, while Vaishyas were tribute-payers, and Shudras were relegated to servile roles, denied the Upanayana ceremony.
• Growth of Monarchies: Tribal chiefdoms evolved into larger, more centralized territorial kingdoms (Janapadas and later Mahajanapadas). Kingship became hereditary, often legitimized through elaborate and expensive Vedic rituals like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Ashvamedha, which enhanced the king's power and divine status. The king maintained an army and collected regular taxes.
• Declining Role of Assemblies: Popular assemblies like Sabha and Samiti, which held significance in the Early Vedic period, lost much of their power and influence, being increasingly dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. Women were excluded from the Sabha.
• Dominance of Brahmanical Ritualism: The period saw an increasing emphasis on complex and expensive sacrificial rituals performed by Brahmanas, often involving animal sacrifices. This ritualistic orthodoxy was central to religious life and social legitimation.
• Economic Transformation: Agriculture became the principal occupation, leading to surplus production. This supported the rise of towns as centers of industry and trade, but also contributed to economic inequalities.
• Deterioration of Women's Status: Women generally lost the relatively high position they held in the Rig Vedic age. They were deprived of the Upanayana ceremony and were often considered subordinate, with the birth of a daughter sometimes seen as undesirable.

The Reaction and the Emergence of Territorial Republics (Gana-Sanghas)

The rigidities and inequalities inherent in the later Vedic pattern of life fostered discontent, particularly among certain Kshatriya groups and the Vaishyas, which contributed to the rise of territorial republics (Gana-Sanghas) in the post-Vedic period (c. 6th-4th centuries BCE). These republics, often located in the periphery of the Gangetic plains, in the foothills of the Himalayas and northwestern India, represented a distinct political and social alternative.

Key Aspects of Reaction and Republic Formation:

1. Against Brahmanical Supremacy and Ritualism:
   • The republics often lacked the elaborate Vedic rituals and the preeminent status of Brahmanas seen in monarchies. There are hardly any references to purohitas or land grants to Brahmanas in these republics.
   • The costly and time-consuming sacrifices of the later Vedic period were seen as economically burdensome and socially exclusive. The Gana-Sanghas adopted simpler forms of worship or were influenced by new ascetic movements like Buddhism and Jainism, which rejected Vedic orthodoxy and animal sacrifices.
2. Against Hereditary Monarchy and Centralized Power:
   • Unlike monarchies where power was concentrated in a single hereditary king, Gana-Sanghas were oligarchic or republican states where power was shared collectively among a group of leaders or representatives, often from prominent clans or families (e.g., the Licchavis of Vajji confederacy, the Shakyas).
   • Decisions were made through councils or assemblies, emphasizing a more participatory and inclusive, albeit aristocratic, approach to governance. The idea of "rule by tribal assembly" (Gana-Sangha) directly contrasted with the monarchical "samrajya."
3. Against Rigid Social Stratification:
   • While not entirely egalitarian, the social hierarchy in Gana-Sanghas was generally simpler than in monarchies. They did not rigidly adhere to the four-fold Varna system as strictly as the monarchies did.
   • Many members of the Kshatriya clans in these republics held the status of 'rajas', signifying a broader distribution of political power within the ruling elite. The ruling Kshatriya rajakula and the laboring class (dasakarmakara) formed the main strata, with less emphasis on intricate caste divisions.
   • The rise of heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism, which emerged in this period and found significant support in these republics, also challenged the caste system and emphasized individual merit over birth.
4. Economic Factors:
   • The republics, often located in less agriculturally dominant areas or regions with nascent agricultural expansion, might have developed different economic structures compared to the wealthy agrarian monarchies of the Gangetic plains.
   • The need for collective efforts in resource management or defence against larger monarchical states might have fostered a more communal or republican ethos.
5. Geographical Location and Tribal Legacy:
   • Many Gana-Sanghas were situated in the foothills of the Himalayas (e.g., Vajji, Malla, Shakya) or in the northwestern regions, areas that might have retained stronger tribal traditions of collective decision-making and resistance to centralized monarchical authority.
   • Their geographical location, sometimes more rugged or peripheral, might have made them less attractive for full-scale annexation by larger monarchies in their nascent stages, allowing their distinct political forms to flourish.

Thus, the territorial republics, with their non-monarchical polities, relative social mobility, and less ritualistic religious practices, can be seen as a direct outcome of the accumulated reactions against the political centralization, social stratification, and Brahmanical dominance that characterized the later Vedic period.

Feature	Later Vedic Period (Monarchical Pattern)	Territorial Republics (Gana-Sanghas)
Political System	Centralized, hereditary monarchy; king's power absolute; elaborate coronation rituals.	Oligarchic/Republican; collective leadership by assembly/council; leaders from prominent clans.
Social Hierarchy	Rigid, hereditary Varna system; Brahmanas & Kshatriyas privileged; Shudras at bottom.	Less rigid Varna system; ruling Kshatriya clans held power; some social mobility.
Religious Practices	Dominance of elaborate, expensive Vedic rituals and animal sacrifices.	Less emphasis on Vedic rituals; influenced by heterodox sects (Buddhism/Jainism).
Role of Assemblies	Sabha & Samiti lost significance, dominated by elites; women excluded.	Assemblies (Sanghas) had considerable decision-making power; more participatory for ruling members.
Geographical Focus	Primarily in the fertile Gangetic plains.	Often in the periphery, Himalayan foothills, or northwestern regions.