"The tug of war between the two principles of freedom and control of the press made its influence felt on the colonial rulers' attitude to the press." Discuss.

The Genesis of the Press and Early Controls (Late 18th Century - Early 19th Century)

The establishment of the first newspaper, Hicky's Bengal Gazette in 1780, marked the beginning of print media in India. Initially, the British East India Company recognized the potential of the press for administrative communication and as a means to project an image of just governance. However, even early on, criticism directed at Company officials led to swift punitive action, setting a precedent for state oversight.

• Censorship of Press Act, 1799 (Lord Wellesley): Imposed pre-censorship on newspapers, requiring submission of proofs before publication. This was largely driven by fears of French invasion and dissemination of anti-British sentiments.
• Relaxation by Lord Hastings (1818): Pre-censorship was abolished, reflecting a brief period of more progressive views towards the press.
• Licensing Regulations, 1823 (John Adams): Reinstated strict controls, making it illegal to operate a press without a license. This led to the cessation of publications like Raja Rammohan Roy's Mirat-ul-Akbar.

The Era of Liberalism and its Reversal (1835 - 1857)

A short-lived but significant period of press freedom emerged, only to be dramatically reversed following the Revolt of 1857.

• Press Act of 1835 (Metcalfe Act): Sir Charles Metcalfe, earning the title "Liberator of the Indian Press," repealed the 1823 regulations, removing licensing requirements and fostering a period of rapid growth for newspapers. This was largely a pragmatic move to reduce administrative burden and gain public goodwill.
• Licensing Act, 1857 (Gagging Act, Lord Canning): In the immediate aftermath of the 1857 Revolt, perceived to have been fueled by inflammatory publications, this Act reintroduced mandatory licensing and empowered the government to prohibit the publication or circulation of any printed matter deemed seditious. This marked a severe shift towards control.
• Registration Act, 1867: Replaced the 1857 Act, primarily for regulatory purposes rather than outright restriction. It required newspapers to print the name of the printer, publisher, and place of publication, and submit a copy to the government.

Intensified Control and Discriminatory Policies (Post-1870s)

As the nationalist movement gained momentum, the colonial government resorted to more draconian and often discriminatory measures to curb the influence of the Indian press.

Vernacular Press Act, 1878 (Lord Lytton)

This was one of the most infamous pieces of legislation, explicitly designed to control the Indian-language press, which was increasingly critical of British policies. It was nicknamed "The Gagging Act."

• Provisions: Empowered district magistrates to demand bonds from printers/publishers of vernacular newspapers, promising not to publish material inciting disaffection or antipathy. Security could be forfeited and press equipment seized without judicial review.
• Discrimination: Excluded English-language publications, revealing a clear discriminatory intent to silence Indian voices.
• Impact: Led to widespread protests and condemnation. Newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika famously converted to an English daily overnight to escape its provisions.
• Repeal: Repealed by Lord Ripon in 1882, responding to mounting public pressure.

Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908

Enacted in response to the rise of extremist nationalist activities, particularly during the Swadeshi movement.

• Powers: Magistrates were empowered to confiscate press property that published objectionable material likely to cause incitement to murder or acts of violence.

Indian Press Act, 1910

This Act revived and expanded upon the stringent features of the Vernacular Press Act, imposing rigorous censorship on all types of publications.

• Key Provisions: Required printers and publishers to deposit security (Rs. 500 to Rs. 2000), which could be forfeited for publishing seditious or objectionable material. Customs and postal authorities gained powers to detain and examine suspicious printed matter. Local governments could declare forfeiture of any newspaper, book, or document.
• Impact: Led to the prosecution of nearly 1,000 papers and suppression of revolutionary and nationalist literature, severely curtailing freedom of expression.

Wartime Censorship and Continued Repression (Early 20th Century to Independence)

The World Wars provided further justification for the colonial government to impose strict censorship, effectively expanding the 'control' aspect of the tug of war.

• Defence of India Act, 1915: Enacted during World War I, it granted authorities stringent powers to censor the press to prevent the dissemination of information prejudicial to the war effort or public safety.
• Repeal of 1908 and 1910 Acts (1921): Based on the recommendations of the Press Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru, these acts were repealed, offering a brief respite.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931: Introduced in the wake of the Civil Disobedience Movement, giving provincial governments sweeping powers to suppress propaganda deemed to be undermining government authority. It was further amplified in 1932.
• World War II Censorship: Under the Defence of India Rules, severe repression was again imposed, and amendments were made to the Press Emergency Act and Official Secrets Act, including declaring the publication of news related to Congress activity illegal.

Table: Major Press Acts in Colonial India

Year	Act Name	Key Features and Colonial Attitude	Impact on Freedom of Press
1799	Censorship of Press Act	Pre-censorship; fear of French influence.	Severe restriction, limited criticism.
1823	Licensing Regulations	Mandatory licensing; suppression of Indian-edited papers.	Strict control, targeting Indian voices.
1835	Press Act (Metcalfe Act)	Removed licensing; promoted growth of press.	Brief period of relative freedom.
1857	Licensing Act (Gagging Act)	Mandatory licensing; empowered government to prohibit publications; reaction to Revolt of 1857.	Heavy censorship, stifled dissent.
1878	Vernacular Press Act	Targeted Indian language press; empowered magistrates to seize presses; discriminatory against Indian press.	Severe blow to vernacular press, intensified nationalist resistance.
1910	Indian Press Act	Demanded security deposits; wide powers to forfeit publications; response to militant nationalism.	Rigorous censorship, financial burden on nationalist papers.
1931	Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act	Sweeping powers to suppress Civil Disobedience propaganda.	Extreme control, stifling political movements.

The Nationalist Response and the Press as a Weapon

Despite the repressive measures, the Indian press, particularly the vernacular press, became a crucial instrument for fostering nationalism and challenging colonial rule. Nationalist leaders like Raja Rammohan Roy, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, and Surendranath Banerjee effectively used newspapers to:

• Educate and mobilize public opinion against British policies.
• Expose the economic exploitation and injustices of the Raj.
• Spread ideas of self-rule and social reform.
• Criticize government actions and policies, often using clever tactics to circumvent censorship.

The colonial rulers' consistent attempts to control the press underscored their recognition of its power as a tool for political mobilization and a threat to their authority. Each act of repression often led to innovative forms of resistance from Indian journalists and amplified the nationalist demand for freedom of expression.