What proofs do Nyāya philosophers offer for the existence of God ? Discuss.

Nyāya philosophers, particularly later Naiyāyikas like Udayanācārya, developed several inferential arguments to establish the existence of Īśvara. These arguments are rooted in their understanding of causality, the nature of the world, and the authority of scriptures. They view God as the efficient cause (Nimitta Kāraṇa) of the universe, rather than its material cause (Upādāna Kāraṇa), which consists of eternal atoms (paramāṇus), space, time, mind, and soul.

Proofs for the Existence of God (Īśvara) in Nyāya Philosophy

The principal arguments offered by Nyāya philosophers for the existence of God are:

1. Kāryatva (Argument from Causality or Effects)

• This is the most fundamental and widely cited Nyāya proof. It posits that the entire universe, with its intricate order, design, and systematic arrangement, is an effect (kārya).
• According to the Nyāya principle of causality (asat-kāryavāda), every effect must have an intelligent, efficient cause. Just as a pot requires a potter, a vast and complex universe cannot arise without a corresponding intelligent agent.
• The argument contends that the material causes (eternal atoms) are inert and unconscious; they cannot spontaneously combine to form the ordered world. Therefore, an intelligent, omniscient, and omnipotent being – Īśvara – is required to initiate and direct their conjunction and arrangement.

2. Āyojanāt (Argument from Combination/Conjunction of Atoms)

• This argument specifically addresses how the eternal, unconscious atoms acquire motion and combine to form composite objects.
• Nyāya asserts that atoms, being devoid of consciousness (acetana), cannot spontaneously combine to form dyads (dvyaṇuka), triads (tryaṇuka), and eventually, the macroscopic world.
• An intelligent, guiding force is necessary to orchestrate the initial aggregation and subsequent complex formations of these atoms. This intelligent force is Īśvara, who directs the atoms in accordance with the Adṛṣṭa (unseen moral merit and demerit) of individual souls.

3. Dhṛtyādyaytanāt (Argument from Sustenance and Dissolution)

• The orderly maintenance (dhṛti) of the universe and its systematic dissolution (pralaya) are not accidental occurrences.
• The continuous, purposeful activity, the regular cycles of creation and destruction, and the stability of the cosmic order imply an intelligent sustainer and destroyer.
• This argument points to Īśvara as the supreme controller who maintains the cosmic balance and orchestrates the periodic dissolution and re-creation of the universe.

4. Padāt (Argument from Verbal Testimony/Scriptural Authority)

• Nyāya accepts the Vedas as infallible verbal testimony (śabda pramāṇa).
• The authoritative nature, consistency, and truthfulness of Vedic injunctions and prohibitions regarding dharma (righteous conduct) and adharma (unrighteous conduct) imply an intelligent, omniscient author.
• This author, Īśvara, is the ultimate source of this valid knowledge, as human beings, with their limited knowledge, could not have composed such infallible texts that guide moral and cosmic order.

5. Vākya-pramāṇa (Argument from the Authoritativeness of the Vedas)

• This argument is closely related to the previous one, emphasizing the trustworthiness and inherent validity of the Vedic texts.
• The Vedas are considered self-valid, and their statements about moral laws, cosmic principles, and spiritual truths are held to be true.
• The ultimate author and guarantor of this authoritative knowledge must be a supremely intelligent and trustworthy being, which is Īśvara.

6. Pramāṇatvāt (Argument from Valid Knowledge)

• Nyāya holds that all valid knowledge (pramāṇa), whether through perception or inference, ultimately depends on an original, ultimate source of knowledge.
• The validity of human knowledge, which is often fallible and limited, necessitates a perfectly omniscient source of knowledge. This ultimate source of valid knowledge is God.

7. Adṛṣṭa (Argument from Moral Governance/Law of Karma)

• The law of Karma dictates that every action (dharma or adharma) yields corresponding fruits (sukha or duhkha) for individual souls.
• Since Karma (Adṛṣṭa) is an unconscious force, it cannot by itself distribute rewards and punishments in a just and orderly manner.
• An intelligent supervisor is required to ensure that souls experience the consequences of their actions accurately and justly. This moral governor, who allocates fruits of karma, is Īśvara.

8. Saṃkhyāviśeṣāt (Argument from Particular Numbers)

• This argument, primarily attributed to Udayana, states that the magnitude of a dyad (a two-atom composite) is not merely a result of the infinitesimal magnitudes of the individual atoms, but also by their number.
• The concept of "number" (like two-ness) is a mental construct. At the time of creation, individual souls are unconscious. Therefore, the initial numerical conception that leads to the formation of physical objects must originate from the Divine Consciousness, i.e., God.

In essence, Nyāya philosophers utilized a blend of cosmological, teleological, and moral arguments, along with appeals to scriptural authority, to logically demonstrate the existence of Īśvara as the intelligent, efficient cause, sustainer, and moral governor of the universe.

Nyāya Proof	Core Idea	Analogy/Reasoning
Kāryatva (Causality)	Universe as an effect requires an intelligent efficient cause.	Pot requires a potter; world requires a creator.
Āyojanāt (Combination of Atoms)	Inert atoms cannot combine without an intelligent mover.	An axe (insentient) needs a sentient agent to operate.
Dhṛtyādyaytanāt (Sustenance/Dissolution)	Orderly maintenance and dissolution imply a conscious controller.	A stable house implies an intelligent builder/maintainer.
Padāt/Vākya-pramāṇa (Scriptural Authority)	Infallible Vedas require an omniscient author.	Authoritative texts imply a perfectly knowledgeable source.
Adṛṣṭa (Moral Governance)	Karma (unseen force) needs an intelligent dispenser of results.	A court system requires a judge to deliver justice.