Discuss the social bases of political mobilization in Independent India. Has some change occurred in these during the last 60-70 years?

Social Bases of Political Mobilization in Independent India

Independent India's political landscape has been profoundly shaped by its complex social structure. The primary social bases that have historically driven political mobilization include:

• Caste: The caste system, deeply ingrained in Indian society, has been a pivotal factor. Initially, dominant castes often controlled regional politics. Post-independence, with constitutional provisions for affirmative action, Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) began mobilizing for reservations and greater political representation. This "politicisation of caste," as termed by Rajni Kothari, transformed traditional hierarchies into political resources.
• Religion: Religious identities have consistently played a significant role, shaping communal politics. Parties often appeal to religious sentiments to consolidate 'vote banks,' with secular parties seeking minority votes and others mobilizing along majoritarian lines.
• Language: Linguistic identity has been a powerful force, especially in the initial decades. The linguistic reorganization of states in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated the strength of language-based mobilization, leading to the formation of regional parties that championed linguistic-cultural distinctiveness.
• Region: Regional aspirations, often intertwined with linguistic and cultural identities, have led to demands for greater autonomy or separate statehood. Regional parties emerged to voice localized grievances and priorities, creating a more decentralized political landscape.
• Class: While less overt than caste or religion, class divisions have also contributed to mobilization. Economic disparities have driven movements by peasants, workers, and marginalized groups seeking land reforms, better wages, and social justice.

Changes in Social Bases Over the Last 60-70 Years

The nature and dynamics of these social bases have undergone substantial transformations since independence:

1. Evolution of Caste-Based Mobilization

Initially, political parties, particularly the Indian National Congress, sought to integrate diverse caste groups under a broad nationalistic umbrella. However, the post-Mandal era (since 1990) marked a significant shift, intensifying caste-based mobilization.

• Assertion of Lower Castes: The implementation of the Mandal Commission Report in 1990, providing 27% reservation for OBCs, fueled the rise of OBC-centric parties like the Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal. Dalit assertion also strengthened with the emergence of parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), challenging upper-caste dominance and demanding dignity and rights.
• Internal Fragmentation and Sub-caste Politics: While caste remains central, there's growing fragmentation within broader caste categories (SC, ST, OBC) and the emergence of sub-caste-based mobilization. Political parties now strategically target non-dominant OBCs and Dalits.
• Caste and Class Intersection: Caste and class continue to intersect, with the most exploited classes often belonging to socially oppressed castes. However, economic liberalization has also led to the rise of a new middle class from historically marginalized castes, leading to complex political demands that sometimes transcend traditional caste loyalties, focusing on issues like employment and education.

2. Changing Dynamics of Religious Mobilization

Religion's role has become more complex and, at times, polarizing.

• Rise of Religious Nationalism: The late 1980s and 1990s witnessed the significant rise of Hindu nationalism (Hindutva), exemplified by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). This led to a redefinition of national identity along cultural and ideological lines, impacting inter-community relations.
• Minority Consolidation: Simultaneously, religious minorities have also engaged in political mobilization to protect their rights and interests, often leading to a consolidation of votes along religious lines.
• Communal Polarization: Issues like the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, Uniform Civil Code (UCC), and debates around religious practices reflect increased communal polarization, where religious identity becomes a primary driver of political discourse and mobilization.

3. Transformation of Linguistic and Regional Mobilization

While the initial phase saw the redrawing of state boundaries on linguistic lines, the nature of linguistic and regional politics has evolved.

• Continued Assertion of Regional Identity: Regional parties continue to play a crucial role, often championing local issues and challenging centralizing tendencies. Demands for greater state autonomy and recognition of distinct cultural identities persist.
• Economic and Developmental Regionalism: More recently, regional mobilization is increasingly driven by concerns over uneven development, resource allocation, and economic disparities, rather than solely linguistic identity.
• Inter-State Disputes: Regionalism can also manifest as conflicts between states over resources (e.g., river water disputes like the Cauvery River dispute) or boundary issues, requiring central intervention.

4. Emergence of New Axes of Mobilization

The last few decades have seen the rise of new social bases for political mobilization:

• Identity Politics: Beyond traditional caste and religion, identity politics based on gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation has gained prominence. Movements advocating for women's reservation, LGBTQ+ rights, and tribal self-determination reflect this trend. For example, the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, followed significant advocacy by transgender rights groups.
• Issue-Based and Aspirational Politics: There's a noticeable shift towards issue-based mobilization, particularly among the urban middle class and youth. Concerns like corruption, governance, development, environmental protection (e.g., Narmada Bachao Andolan), and human rights have spurred new social movements and political activism.
• Impact of Technology and Media: The proliferation of social media and digital platforms has revolutionized political mobilization. It facilitates rapid information dissemination, allows direct engagement between leaders and citizens, and enables faster, often leaderless, issue-based movements, transcending traditional geographical and social boundaries. This also, however, can lead to the spread of misinformation and polarization.

The following table summarizes the key shifts:

Social Base	Early Phase (1950s-1980s)	Recent Phase (1990s-Present)
Caste	"Politicisation of Caste" (Kothari), dominant caste influence, early Dalit assertion. Vote banks, 'Sanskritisation'.	Mandalization, aggressive assertion of OBCs/Dalits, sub-caste politics, intersection with class aspirations.
Religion	Communal politics, secular parties consolidating minority votes, relatively less overt majoritarianism.	Rise of religious nationalism, increased communal polarization, minority consolidation for protection.
Language	Linguistic reorganization of states, formation of strong regional parties based on language.	Continued regional linguistic assertion, but also economic development-based regionalism.
Region	Demands for statehood/autonomy based on distinct cultural identity.	Focus on balanced development, resource distribution, inter-state conflicts, and sub-regional demands.
Class	Peasant/worker movements, focus on land reforms, industrial labor rights, anti-poverty campaigns.	Shift to aspirational politics, middle-class activism on governance/corruption, urban-rural divides, impact of economic reforms.
Technology	Limited impact, traditional media (radio, print) for outreach.	Dominant role of social media for rapid mobilization, digital campaigns, real-time engagement.