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UPSC MainsGeneral Studies Paper IModern Indian HistoryPractice question

Expansion of Marathas in 18th Century

Factors leading to the expansion of the Marathas into a formidable and independent kingdom of India in the mid-18th century.

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Introduce the context of Maratha expansion during the post-Mughal phase in the 18th century. Analyse the key administrative, political, and military factors that accelerated this expansion. Highlight the inherent institutional, fiscal, and diplomatic limitations that accompanied this growth, concluding with their long-term repercussions culminating in 1761.

Model answer

360 words

Introduction

The mid-18th century marked the zenith of Maratha expansion, transforming a regional power based in the Deccan into a pan-Indian empire extending from Attock to Odisha. Capitalizing on the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Marathas filled the geopolitical vacuum across northern and central India.

Factors Catalyzing Maratha Expansion

  • Institutional Shift via the Sangola Agreement (1750): This constitutional turning point legally transferred executive, political, and military authority from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa. It streamlined strategic decision-making and created an energetic centralized executive centered in Pune.
  • Dynamic Peshwa Leadership and the Forward Policy: Peshwa Baji Rao I pioneered an ambitious northward policy with the slogan of striking at the withering Mughal trunk to let the branches fall. Decisive military maneuvers, such as the Battle of Palkhed (1728) and the Battle of Bhopal (1737), neutralized the Nizam and Mughal imperial forces, followed by Balaji Baji Rao's expansion into Punjab and Bengal.
  • Military Mobility and Tactical Superiority: The pre-Panipat phase relied primarily on swift, mobile light cavalry (Bargirs) and irregular warfare doctrines. This allowed rapid long-distance raids, cutting enemy supply lines, and capturing strategic outposts across Gujarat, Malwa, and Bundelkhand before imperial armies could organize.
  • Exploitation of Imperial Fragility: The fragmentation of the Mughal court and the rise of regional autonomous subahs (Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad) allowed the Marathas to act as kingmakers in Delhi, securing imperial sanads for revenue extraction.

Structural Limitations of the Expansion

  • Predatory Fiscal Extraction and Diplomatic Alienation: The aggressive levying of Chauth (one-fourth of land revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10%) across Rajputana, Bengal, and Awadh alienated potential indigenous allies, breeding resentment rather than political allegiance.
  • Decentralized Saranjami System: The distribution of military land grants created semi-autonomous, competing chieftaincies—such as the Scindias of Gwalior, Holkars of Indore, Bhonsles of Nagpur, and Gaekwads of Baroda—preventing the formation of an integrated, unified administrative bureaucracy.

Conclusion

While tactical light cavalry mobility and Peshwa-led institutional restructuring enabled unprecedented territorial reach by the 1750s, predatory fiscalism and internal feudal rivalries weakened the Maratha state. These structural and diplomatic vulnerabilities ultimately contributed to their isolation and reversal at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.

Key facts to remember

definition
Sangola Agreement (1750)

An agreement made under Chhatrapati Rajaram II transferring de facto supreme executive, administrative, and military powers to the Peshwa, formalizing Pune as the principal administrative capital.

definition
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

Chauth was an assessment of 25% of the standard land revenue exacted in exchange for protection from pillage, while Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy claimed by Maratha rulers based on hereditary rights.

example
Battle of Palkhed (1728)

Peshwa Baji Rao I outmaneuvered Nizam-ul-Mulk's heavily armed forces in Maharashtra entirely through mobile cavalry maneuvers, forcing the Nizam to recognize Maratha revenue rights.

Frequently asked questions

Why did other Indian powers not support the Marathas at Panipat in 1761?

The Marathas' continuous raids and aggressive extraction of Chauth alienated the Rajputs, Jats, and the Nawab of Awadh, leaving the Marathas diplomatically isolated against Ahmad Shah Abdali.

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